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http://www.archive.org/details/divinelawastowinOOsamsiala 


THE 


DIV-INE  LAW  AS  TO  WINES. 


ESTABLISHED  BY  THB  TESTIMONY  OP 


SAGES,   PHYSICIANS,  AND  LEGISLATORS 


AGAINST  THE   USB  OF 


FERMENTED  AND  INTOXICATING  WINES, 


CONFIRMED   BY 


EGYPTIAN,  GREEK,  AND  ROMAN  METHODS 


OP   PREPARING 


UNFERMENTED  WINES 


FESTAL,   MEDICINAL,  AND   SACRAMENTAL  USES.' 


BY 

Dr.  G.  W.  SAMSON, 

FORHBR   PRBSIDBNT  OP   COLUMBIAN   UNIVERSITY,  WASHINGTOV,    D.   C. 


PHILADELPHIA: 

J.    B.    LIPPINCOTT    &    CO. 
1885. 


COPTRIGHT,   1884,  BY   G.   W.   SaMSON,    D.D. 


THE   WRITER  TO   NEW   READERS. 


The  work  to  which  the  attention  of  thinking 
men  is  here  invited  was  the  suggestion  of  child- 
hood's attestation ;  and  has  been  the  study  of  a 
long  life  amid  most  responsible  charges.  The 
original  volume  was  the  result  of  five  years' 
special  investigation  on  behalf  of  the  "  National 
Temperance  Society,"  whose  publishing  house  is 
at  58  Reade  Street,  New  York.  The  first  Sup- 
plement was  prepared  at  their  request.  The 
necessity  for  more  extended  and  exhaustive 
statements  of  fact  has  led  to  its  committal  to 
the  writer,  and  its  adaptation  to  a  new  class  of 
readers. 

Scientists  are  invited  to  an  examination  whose 
results  have  led  to  Pasteur's  election  as  a  mem- 
ber of  the  French  Academy.  Physicians  are 
interested  ;  since  the  ablest  men  in  their  profes- 
sion are  returning  to  the  practice  of  ancient 
Greek  medical  men,  who  employed  intoxicating 
wines  only  as  an  anaesthetic.  Statesmen  are 
awakened  to  new  responsibilities ;  since  the  rec- 
ords of  pauperism  and  crime  are  causing  a  re- 
turn, in  France,  England,  and  America,  to 
Grecian  and  Roman  "  prohibition,"  as  the  only 
safeguard  from  the  perversion  of  "  license ; " 
meant  to  be  a  protection  to  society,  but  really 
an  invitation  to  prey  upon  the  defenceless. 
Philanthropists  are  roused  ■  since  the  skeleton  of 


iv  The  Writer  to  New  Readers. 

inebriation,  lurking  in  every  palatial  home  that 
has  its  wine-cellar,  is  pointing  its  finger  to  this 
fact :  that,  from  the  era  of  Noah's  fall,  wise  and 
good  men  have  sought,  and  that  in  Egypt, 
Greece,  and  Rome  they  found,  a  method  of  pre- 
serving wines  free  from  the  poison  of  alcoholic 
ferment  Religious  leaders  are  reforming ;  for 
the  fact  is  now  established  that  wine  free  from 
ferment  was  prepared  for  the  religious  rites  of 
ancient  Egyptians  and  Romans,  Hebrews  and 
early  Christians ;  that  it  was  this  wine  Christ 
made,  drank,  and  appointed  for  His  Supper; 
and  that  the  conviction  of  the  Reformers,  seek- 
ing to  return  to  the  primitive  ordinance,  now 
rules  opinion  and  practice  in  the  "  Church  of 
England," 

Bacon,  the  restorer  of  Aristotle's  method  in 
scientific  investigation,  wrote  on  the  theme  of 
this  volume  :  "  As  those  wines  which  flow  from 
the  first  treading  of  the  grape  are  sweeter  and 
better  than  those  forced  out  by  the  press,  .... 
so  are  those  doctrines  best  and  sweetest  which 
flow  from  a  gentle  crush  of  the  Scriptures,  and 
are  not  wrung  into  controversies  and  common- 
places." Taught  through  a  long  life  by  com- 
muning with  such  minds,  and  assured  that  "  the 
truth,"  as  to  this  vital  fact  of  the  ages,  should 
be  maintained,  the  writer  invites  still,  as  he  has 
long  received,  manly  criticism  ;  only  asking  that 
it  be  open  so  as  to  be  met. 


CONTENTS. 


The  Writer  to  His  Readers,  -----  j 

Experience  a  Guide  to  Law,  -----  7 

Laws  of  Nature,  Province  of  Science  and  Law,  10 

Aim  and  Present  Call  for  the  Survey  Proposed,  13 

Materials  for  Scientific  Investigation,      -       -  18 

Causes  of  Differing  Conclusions  in  Science,     -  20 

Elements  of  Grape-juice,  and  Source  of  Ferment,  29 

Nature  of  Ferment  and  its  Products,        -       -  31 

Nature  of  Al-cohol  and  its  Effects,           -       -  35 

Resorts  to  Arrest  and  to  Prevent  Ferment,    -  39 

Wines  in  the  Earliest  Historic  Records,   -       -  44 

Early  Indian  and  Egyptian  Laws  as  to  Wines,  51 

Hebrew  Products  of  the  Vine  before  Solomon,  61 

Hebrew  "Tirosh,"  or  Unfermented  Wine,  -       -  70 

Hebrew  "  Yayin,"  generic  for  Wine;  Moses'  Law,  79 

Wines  in  Despotic  Asia;  New  Hebrew  Wines,    -  84 

Age  of  Asiatic  Reform  as  to  Wines,    -       -       -  100 

Early  Grecian  Wisdom  as  to  Wines,    -       -       -  106 

The  Greek  Physician,  Hippocrates,  on  Wines,   -  iii 

Plato's  Theoretic  Laws  as  to  Wines,  -       -       -  113 

Aristotle's  Scientific  Studies  as  to  Wines,       -  121 

Wines  in  the  Early  Roman  Republic,          -       -  130 

Roman  Mode  of  Making  Unfermented  Wines,    132,  139 

Pliny's  Historic  and  Scientific  Treatises,          -  140 

Wines  in  the  Grhek  Version  of  Old  Test.,        -  146 

Wines  in  the  Hebrew-Greek  Apocrypha,     -       -  152 

Terms  for  Vine-Products  in  New  Testament,    -  157 

Use  of  Wine  by  Christ,  and  His  Example,  -       -  163 

Wines  in  the  Writings  of  Luke  and  of  Paul,  -  173 

Wines  in  Jewish  Writers  after  Christ's  Day,   -  177 


2  Contents. 

•Wines  in  Later  Grecian  and  Roman  Literature,  i8g 

Wines  in  Early  Chn.  Writers — Syriac  Version,  196 

Wines  under  the  First  Christian  Emperor,       -  205 

Wines  in  Undivided  Empire — Latin  Version,       -  210 

Wines  in  the  Koran  and  among  Muhammedans,  217 

Wines  in  the  Western  Church — Arabic  Version,  222 

Wines  in  the  Greek  and  Oriental  Churches,   -  229 

Wines  in  Versions  at  the  Reformation,      -       -  234 

Wine  for  the  Supper  in  Mission  Fields,      -       -  240 

American  Study  of  Bible  Wines,  -       -       -       -  243 

English  Study  of  Bible  Wines,      -       -       -       -  252 

Literary  Genius  and  the  Law  of  Wines,    -       -  260 

Modern  Artists  and  Wines,    -----  267 

Modern  Fashionable  Society  and  Wines,    -       -  270 

Modern  Chemists  on  the  Law  of  Wines,        -       -  274 

Modern  Encyclopaedists  on  History  of  Wines,  -  276 

Modern  Medical  Science  as  to  the  Law  of  Wines,  278 

Modern  Statesmen  and  Statutes  as  to  Wines,  283 

Recent  American  Legislation  as  to  Wines,        -  290 

Recent  Church  Reform  as  to  Wines,  -       -       -  300 

Law  Tested  by  Uniform  Facts  and  Convictions,  306 

Universal  Search  for  Unfermented  Wine,        -  307 

Uniform  Mode  of  Making  Unfermented  Wine,  -  31^ 

Common  Terms  for  the  Effects  of  Wines,  -       -  314 

Harmonious  Teaching  in  God's  Works  and  Word,  318 

Conclusion — Method  of  Agassiz  and  Aim  of  Henry  321 

Egyptian  Methods  of  Wine-Making,      -       -       -  324 

Science  in  History  of  Unfermfnted  Wines,        -  327 

Two  Propositions  of  Prof.  Stuart,        .       -        -  330 

Objections  in  Princeton  Review,  April,  1841,      -  331 

Dr.  Rich's  Support  of  Stuart's  First  Proposition,  332 

Opposing  Argument  of  Dr.  D.  Moore,    -       -       -  334 

Objections  of  Horace  Bumstead,    -       -       -       -  340 

Studies  Leading  to  "  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines,"  341 

Scientific  Law  of  Unfermented  Wines,       -       -  343 

Pasteur's  Experiments  Attesting  the  Law,        -  346 

Berzelius'  Approach  to  the  Law,  -       -       -       -  348 

Unfermented  Wine  now  in  South  of  France,    -  -i.^-x 


Contents.  3 

Method  of  Philological  Investigation,       -       -  358 

Methods  of  Research  in  Roman  History,    -       -  365 

Roman  Agricultural  Writers  on  Wines,    -       -  369 

Cato,  the  First  Roman  Writer  on  Wines,  -       -  370 

Varro,  the  Second  "             "              "            -       -  372 

Columella,  the  Third  Roman  Writer,         -       -  375 

Pliny,  the  Roman  Naturalist,  on  Wines,    -       -  380 

General  Roman  Literature  on  Wines,         -       -  398 

Greek  Writers  on  Wines,        _       -       _       -       _  400 

The  Hebrew,  a  Universal  Language,  on  Wines,  -  408 

Hebrew  Semitic  Terms  for  Wines,         _       _       _  413 

Hebrew  "Tirosh"  a  Species  with  Varieties,       -  415 

Hebrew  "Yayin"  the  Universal  Term  for  Wine,  422 

Rabbinic-Hebrew,  and  Arabic  Terms,    -       -       -  424 

Jewish  Wedding  and  Passover  Wines,           -       -  431 

Missionary  Reports  on  Wines  in  Bible  Lands,  -  434 

Character  of  Recent  Works  on  Wines,       -       -  442 

Stuart's  Two  Propositions  Sustained,  -       -       -.  445 

Application  of  Stuart's  Principles,      -       -       -  447 

Common  Ground  for  the  Humane  and  Christians,  455 

Review  Calling  for  Added  Testimonies,      -       -  457 

Criticism  of  Testimony  of  Christian  Fathers,  -  461 

Principles  Ruling  Interpretation  of  Fathers,  -  463 

Number  of  Writers  and  their  Interpreters,      -  466 

Justin  and  Iren^us  in  Second  Century,      -       -  468 

Clement,  the  Leading  Witness  in  Second  Century,  469 

Tertullian,  Latin  Witness  in  Third  Century,  -  480 

Origen,  Alexandrian  Witness  in  "             "           -  483 

Cyprian,  Carthaginian        "          "             "           -  490 

Zeno,  Italian                          "           "             "           -  494 

Arnobius,  Carthag.  Witness  in  Fourth  Century,  497 

Eusebius,  Church  Historian  in  Fourth  Century,  499 

Lactantius  and  Athanasius  in       "               "  502 

HiLARIUS   AND   EPIPHANIUS   IN                  "                     "  506 

Ambrose  of  Milan,  Italy,  in            "               "  508 

Basil,  Chrysostom,  and  Cyril  in    "               "  511 

Jerome,  the  Commentator  of  the  Fifth  Century,  515 

Augustine,  the  Theologian  of          "             "  519 


4  Contents. 

Theodoret,  the  Greek  Theologian  of  the  Fifth 

Century,        __---._-  529 

Recent  Hebrew  Criticisms  on  Wines,    -       -       -  532 

Recent  Greek  and  Latin  Criticisms  on  Wines,  -  537 

Recent  Medieval  Criticisms  on  Wines,        -       -  547 

Results  Attained  and  Truth  Established,        -  550 

Obstacles  to  Acceptance  of  Results,   -       -       -  562 

Unscientific  Criticism  of  Historic  Records,       -  567 

Writer's  Relations  to  Discussion  on  Wines,     -  584 


THE  WRITER  TO  HIS  READERS. 


If  the  writer  of  the  following  treatise  may 
judge  from  his  own  experience,  the  title-page  of 
this  volume  will  be  met  with  both  a  pre-judgment 
and  a  prejudice.  That  pre-judgment  will  appear 
in  the  inquiry :  "Has  not  advanced  scholarship 
decided  that  there  can  be  no  unfermented  wine  ?  " 
That  prejudice  will  reveal  itself  in  the  question  : 
"  If  Divine  law  has  appointed  the  use  of  unintox- 
icating  wines,  why  has  not  the  law  of  their  prep- 
aration been  sooner  brought  out  ?"  It  the  prej- 
udice be  groundless,  the  pre-judgment  may  per- 
mit an  impartial  meeting  of  writer  and  reader. 

Ruling  minds  in  Europe  and  America  are  now 
agreed  that  stable  and  efficient  government 
must  be  constitutional ;  that  servitude  must  be 
but  minorage  guardianship ;  and  that  religious 
worship  must  be  free.  Thorough  scholarship 
now  finds  that  each  of  these  modern  reforms  was 
embodied  both  in  theory  and  practice  in  Hebrew, 
Grecian  and  Roman  constitutions ;  and  that 
they  are  ever  traceable  in  the  connections  of 
ancient  literature.  A  clear  and  full  understand- 
ing of  the  actual  statements  of  ancient  writers 
is  attained  only  by  the  conspiring  of  two  co- 
operating causes;  first,  an  imperative  popular 
demand  which  gives  a  clear  eye  ;  second,  a  com- 
prehensive survey  which  gives  a  full  view. 

(5) 


6  The  Writer  to  his  Readers. 

The  same  writers  whose  records  make  distinct 
the  existence  of  the  rule  of  natural  law,  now  ad- 
mitted as  reform,  reveal  an  unbroken  succession  of 
facts  illustrating  "  the  Divine  law  as  to  wines."  In 
all  ages  of  thought  and  culture,  physicians,  states- 
men and  moralists  have  recognized  the  "  poison  " 
lurking  in  fermented  wines ;  and  from  sani- 
tary, social  and  religious  convictions,  they  have 
sought  to  counteract  and  eradicate  it.  The  Egyp- 
tians and  Hebrews  had  an  "  unfermented  wine  ; " 
as  a  chain  of  authorities  from  Moses,  the  histo- 
rian and  law-giver,  to  Fuerst,  the  latest  Hebrew 
lexicographer,  attest.  The  laxative,  as  opposed 
to  the  intoxicating  effect  of  such  wine,  is  stated 
by  a  succession  of  Hebrew,  Grecian  and  Roman 
writers  The  mode  of  preparing  and  preserving 
such  wine  is  minutely  described  by  Roman  writ- 
ers from  Cato,  ac.  200,  to  Pliny,  a.d.  100.  The 
fact  that  such  wine  is  referred  to  in  the  Gospel 
histories  as  thr.t  used  by  Christ  at  both  the  Pass- 
over and  Lord's  Supper,  is  confirmed  by  the 
words  of  the  inspired  writers,  by  the  comments 
and  translations  of  the  early  and  of  the  Reformed 
Christian  scholars,  and  by  the  prevailing,  though 
ofttimes  perverted,  practice  of  the  Jewish  and 
Christian  Churches. 

The  demands  of  science,  in  medicine  and 
jurisprudence,  in  social  and  Christian  ethics, 
justify  the  attempt  to  trace  impartially  that 
history. 


THE 


DIVINE  LAW  AS  TO  WINES, 


EXPERIENCE    AS    A    GUIDE   TO  LAW. 

Experience,  or  personal  history,  is  not  only  a 
part  of,  but  an  essential  prerequisite  to  the  study 
of  universal  history  in  each  and  all  of  its  de- 
partments. 

The  writer's  boyhood-memories  recall  a  child- 
hood-tasting of  the  sugary  bottom  of  a  glass  on 
his  mother's  sideboard  left  by  a  guest  of  his  father, 
who  was  a  clergyman  of  great  moral  worth.  The 
sensation  as  of  worms  crawling  through  his  young 
brain,  the  "  biting  serpent  "  of  Solomon,  created 
a  dread  never  overcome.  Shortly  after  an  extra 
glass  led  that  father  to  insist  that  a  closet-door 
should  open  the  opposite  way  from  that  indicated 
by  its  hinges,  and  gave  an  added  terror  to  that 
dread ;  for  it  embodied  Solomon's  warning, 
"Wine  is  a  mocker;  Strong  drink  is  raging." 
The  temperance  reform  soon  came ;  that  father 
was  one  of  its  earnest,  but  conservative  advo- 
cates; and  an  early  Christian  profession  added 

to  the  convictions  before  formed 

(7) 


8  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

In  school-days  extremists  were  met.  Some 
fellow-students,  preparing  for  college,  were  so 
severe  toward  conservatives  and  so  ascetic  in 
their  demands,  that  their  mate  of  but  fourteen 
years  rose  and  proposed  to  add  to  the  pledge 
"  abstinence  from  cold  water ; "  since  many  lost 
their  lives  by  intemperance  in  its  use.  Youth 
and  early  manhood  passed  without  committal  to 
a  pledge,  but  in  the  strictest  abstinence. 

A  tour  in  the  East,  through  Egypt,  by  Mount 
Sinai,  through  Palestine,  was  made  in  1847-8, 
shortly  after  the  scholarly  investigations  of  Presi- 
dent Nott  and  of  Professor  Stuart  had  stemmed, 
though  not  turned  the  tide,  counter  to  sound 
Biblical  interpretation,  which  heated  advocates  of 
total  abstinence  had  awakened  by  their  attacks 
on  the  Christian  Church  and  the  Christian 
Scriptures  as  inculcating  the  use  of  wines.  The 
counter  and  opposing  statements  of  Rev. 
Messrs.  Smith  and  Homes,  coming  from  Syria 
and  Constantinople,  prompted  personal  observa- 
tion and  inquiry  throughout  the  entire  Levant. 

The  subsequent  responsible  charge  of  pastor 
to  a  congregation,  many  of  whose  members  were 
leading  statesmen,  led  to  a  frequent  presentation 
of  the  evils  arising  from  wine-drinking  in  fashion- 
able society  ;  which  aided  the  determination  then 
prevalent  to  banish  wine  from  official  entertain- 
ments.    The  equally  responsible  duty  of  a  col- 


I 


Experience  a  Guide  to  Law.  9 

lege-president  prompted  consistent  example,  and 
teaching  that  entire  abstinence  was  the  only  safe 
rule  for  personal  guidance.  Solomon's  precept, 
"  It  is  not  for  princes  to  drink  wine,"  formed  an 
efficient  appeal  to  the  ambitious  student ;  as 
Paul's  allusion,  "  The  athlete  is  temperate  in  all 
things,"  was  an  effectual  incitement  to  religious 
devotion.  Meanwhile  the  use  of  brandy  pre- 
scribed by  a  physician  as  a  tonic,  gave  personal 
assurance  that  far  better,  as  well  as  less  danger- 
ous prescriptions  should  be  made  by  physicians. 
Moreover,  to  satisfy  friends  who  pleaded  fashion 
for  the  use  of  light  wines,  companions  in  travel 
were  yielded  to,  that  the  experiment  of  their  ef- 
fect might  be  satisfactory ;  when  a  large  com- 
pany of  mature  and  youthful  fellow-travellers 
returned  to  resist  the  introduction  of  European 
drinking  customs  into  America. 

Seven  years  of  college  and  pastoral  life  in 
New  York  have  been  made  trying  by  appeals  of 
anxious  mothers  whose  sons  were  falling,  by  re- 
formed inebriates  who  so  dreaded  the  tempta- 
tion of  the  Communion-cup,  and  of  merchant- 
princes  who  despond  because  no  American 
families  can  be  perpetuated. 

The  writer  v/^ould  have  incurred  the  sentence 
against  "  buried  talent,"  had  he  not,  when  invited, 
faithfully  yet  unassumingly  traced  the  history 
which  follows. 


lo  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

LAW  IN  ITS    NATURE  AND  ESTABLISHMENT. 

Law  is  defined  by  the  scientist,  "  An  order  of 
sequence ; "  but  by  the  jurist  as  "  A  rule  of 
action."     Both  definitions  are  in  accord. 

A  law  is  the  regular  order  in  which  events,  in 
their  relation  of   cause  and  effect,  follow   one 
another.     Experience,  or  personal  history,  and 
observation  which  brings  in  many  experiences, 
permit  a  decision  of  the  observer  as  to  what  is 
law,  or  the  uniform  order  of  cause  and  effect. 
History,  according  as  its  range  is  extended,  adds 
increasing  confirmation  to   what   by  individual 
experience  might  have  been  conceived  to  be  law. 
The  "  law  of  wines "  is  thus  to  be  determined. 
If  truth  is  sought,  it  is  attained  when  the  effect 
of  wines  on  the  human  constitution  is  ascertain- 
ed as  an  "  order  of  sequence."    If  duty  is  desired, 
the  law  of  wineS,  once  ascertained,  becomes  a 
"  rule  of  action."  Since  law  can  not  be  imposed  on 
man  without  a  higher  authority,  since  a  majority, 
however  numerous,  have  no  authority  to  restrict 
the  personal  right  of  a  single  individual,  jurists  add 
to  their  definition  :  "  Law  is  a  rule  of  action  pre- 
scribed  by   an   adequate   authority.'      As   men 
never  have  submitted  willingly  to  mere  human 
authority,  no  legislature  has  ever  dreamed  of  en- 
acting and  enforcing  law  except  as  the  manifest 
will  of  the  Author  of  all,  manifested  either  in 
nature  or  in  His  revealed  Word.     The  search 


Province  of  Science  and  Civil  Law.       1 1 

for  law  then  as  "  an  order  of  sequence,"  and 
also  "  as  a  rule  of  action,"  will  in  vain  make  its 
appeal  to  the  reason  and  conscience  of  men,  un- 
less it  is  seen  to  be  "  the  Divine  law."  In  all 
the  history  of  wines  here  to  be  traced,  it  will  be 
seen  that  the  wise  and  the  good  men  of  earth 
have  been  seeking  the  "  Divine  law  of  Wines." 
The  maxim,  "  Experience  is  the  best  teacher,' 
thus  extends  and  expands  into  the  precept, 
"  History  is  philosophy  teaching  by  example."  As 
science  is  "  systematized "  knowledge,  as  art  is 
"  applied  "  knowledge,  as  philosophy  is  "  unified  " 
knowledge,  and  as  religion  is  "  harmonized " 
knowledge,  their  varied  yet  conspiring  voices 
should  be  listened  to  and  comprehended,  before 
the  fields  of  history,  which  but  echo  their  voices, 
are  traversed. 

THE  PROVINCE  OF  SCIENCE,  OF  ART,  AND  OF  CIVIL 
AND  RELIGIOUS  JURISPRUDENCE  IN  DETER- 
MINING THE  LAW  OF  WINES. 

It  is  the  province  of  science  to  observe  and 
compare,  to  analyze  and  classify  phenomena,  so 
as  to  reach  essential  principles  of  truth  as  to  the 
nature  and  relations  of  man  to  things  and  beings 
around  him.  Though  the  means  of  observing 
and  analyzing,  as  by  the  microscope  and  galvanic 
battery,  have  been  improved,  Aristotle  was  the 
guide  of  Agassiz  in  natural  history ;  and  H  ip- 


12  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

pocrates  and  Pliny  are  teachers  of  modern  phy- 
sicians and  encyclopedists  in  analyzing  the  prop- 
erties and  effects  of  various  wines. 

It  is  the  province  of  art  to  take  up  prin- 
ciples established  by  science,  and  apply  them  in 
works  of  utility  and  beauty.  The  ancient  Egyp- 
tian artists  could  not,  without  a  knowledge  now 
lost,  have  invented  arts  now  beyond  human 
skill.  The  fact  that  the  Greeks  were  inimitable 
in  sculpture  and  in  architecture  is  not  more  pal- 
pable than  the  fact  that  the  profoundest  study  re- 
veals scientific  methods  inexplicable  to  modem 
students.  It  is  equally  noteworthy  that  the 
pictures  drawn  by  Homer  and  Virgil  of  Calypso 
and  the  Sirens  in  their  power  over  the  sage  and 
heroic  Ulysses,  and  that  the  statues  of  Bacchus, 
conceived  and  executed  by  the  earliest  Greek 
sculptors,  are  an  appeal  to  warn  men  against 
yielding  to  the  first  seduction  of  the  intoxicating 
cup,  such  as  modem  art  seldom  approaches. 

It  is  the  province  of  the  statesman  to  observe 
in  his  own  community  and  generation,  and  to 
trace  in  the  history  of  all  nations  and  ages,  the 
nature  and  relations  of  men  and  things  so  far  as 
these  interfere  with  the  welfare  of  men  in  society 
No  modern  statesman  had  studied  more  compre- 
hensively the  social  evils  of  wines  than  did  Plato ; 
no  military  or  republican  leader  has  more  rigidly 
enforced  its  laws  than  Lycurgus  and  Numa ;  and 


Aim  of  the  Proposed  Inquiry. 


13 


no  moralists  ever  taught  the  grounds  for  absti- 
nence more  clearly  than  the  wise  men  of  Egypt, 
Chaldea, and  India;  as  did  Moses,  Solomon,  and 
Daniel  reared  among  them. 

It  is  the  province  of  religion  to  gather,  to 
systematize,  and  to  impress  on  the  popular  mind 
the  proofs  that  there  is  a  Being  who  is  the 
Author  of  all  things  and  of  all  human  relations ; 
that  the  laws  which  control  man's  relations  to  his 
fellows  in  the  family  and  society  are  not  made 
and  imposed  by  civil  rulers,  but  by  his  and  their 
common  Maker  and  Father;  and  that  instead  of 
rebelling,  therefore,  against  restrictive  statutes 
conformed  to  laws  too  deep  for  his  personal  study, 
he  should  gratefully  recognize  the  superior  wis- 
dom of  men  who  have  studied  them  for  his  good, 
and  whose  authority  to  enforce  them  has  been 
given  because  the  common  welfare  demands 
their  observance. 


THE    CHIEF    AIM    OF    THE    PROPOSED    INQUIRY. 

The  title-page  of  this  treatise  presupposes  two 
existing  facts :  that  men  by  nature  have  religious 
conviction,  and  that  religious  conviction  prompts 
inquiry  as  to  the  law  of  wines.  The  essential 
nature  of  religious  conviction  and  the  two  classes 
of  practical  duties  to  which  that  conviction 
prompts  men  were  never  better  stated  by  Roman 
writers  than  when  the  "  desire  of  all  nations  "  was 


14  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines, 

realized  in  the  Author  of  the  Christian  religion. 
Cicero  derived  the  word  religio  from  "  relego  " 
or  "  religo,"  meaning  to  review  and  retrace ;  say- 
ing "  Sunt  dicti  religiosi  ex  relegendo,"  they  are 
called  religious  from  retracing.  The  same 
comprehensive  writer  summed  up  the  two  duties 
prompted  by  religious  conviction  thus :  "  Religio 
est,  quae  superioris  cujusdam  naturae,  quam  di- 
vinam  vocant,  curam  caerimoniamque  affert;" 
which  may  be  rendered :  "  Religion  is  that  which 
prompts  to  moral  carefulness  and  ceremonial  de- 
votion to  any  superior  being  whom  men  regard 
divine."  It  is,  now,  religious  conviction  as  to  the 
moral  propriety  of  using  wines,  both  as  a  bever- 
age and  in  religious  rites,  to  which  Cicero's  com- 
prehensive statement  calls  us.  It  will  be  found 
that  as  religious  duty  rests  in  all  minds,  and  in 
all  ages,  on  these  two  ideas,  of  carefulness  as  to 
personal  moral  habits,  and  of  scrupulousness  as  to 
formal  religious  rites,  so  in  all  ages,  distinct  from 
all  articles  of  diet  and  select  among  all  offerings 
to  deity,  wine  has  been  made  the  subject  of 
special  thought  and  debate. 

THE    PRESENT    CALL    FOR    THIS    REVIEW. 

In  everything  that  concerns  man,  in  scientific 
survey,  in  moral  reform,  in  religious  progress, 
there  is,  as  there  was  before  Christ's  coming,  a 
"  due  time."     In  the  gradual  spread  and  power 


Present  Call  for  Historic  Review.        15 

of  Christ's  Gospel,  there  was  a  time  for  Grecian 
wisdom,  and  then  for  Roman  power  to  yield  to 
its  sway ;  a  time  for  frequent  successive  reforma- 
tions where  Christianity  prevailed,  and  then  for 
missions  abroad  ;  a  time  for  moral  reforms  in 
civil  and  then  in  domestic  associations  ;  and  now, 
perhaps,  a  time  for  the  true  law  of  the  use  of 
wines  in  social  customs  and  ecclesiastical  rites  to 
gain  its  legitimate  sway.  Men  of  science  are 
now  devoted  with  special  earnestness  to  the  re- 
covery of  the  victims  of  intoxication ;  they  are 
noting  with  all  the  appliances  of  modern  chemi- 
cal research  the  effects  of  alcohol  on  the  human 
body ;  and  they  do  not  fear  to  be  regarded  un- 
scientific in  maintaining  the  truth  to  which  ob- 
servation leads  them.  They  declare  that,  in  ad- 
mixtures, alcohol  is  not  only  not  nutritious,  but 
more,  that  it  is  not  even  a  stimulant,  being,  in 
fact,  an  irritant ;  and  they  illustrate  their  idea  by 
the  different  effects  of  food,  some  kinds  and  pro- 
portions of  which  are  nutritive  and  others  stimu- 
lating, while  any  surplus  in  proper  proportions, 
and  some  ingredients  in  any  proportions,  only 
inflame  and  irritate,  being  not  only  .void  of  nu- 
trition, but  unhealthful  in  their  excitement. 
They  agree  universally  in  declaring  that  pure, 
unadulterated  alcohol  is  as  truly  a  poison  as  anti- 
mony. If  now  as  early  as  the  days  of  Hippoc- 
rates, the  earliest  medical  writer  whose  records 


1 6  The  Divine  'Law  as  to  Wines. 

are  preserved,  the  same  truth  is  found  stated,  and 
its  recognition  age  after  age  is  recorded,  it  must 
be  the  part  of  those  who  wish  to  be  scientific  to 
note  this  testimony  of  successive  observers. 

Artists  and  men  of  letters  are  yet  more  ob- 
servant; and,  as  of  old,  they  are  embodying 
truth.  Gustave  Dore,  the  magical  delineator 
of  supernatural  scenes,  conceived  a  vase  of 
strange  device  for  the  Paris  Exposition  of  1878. 
It  is  a  Greek  "amphora"  or  wine-tureen,  on 
whose  brim  ruddy  cupids  are  sporting  in  childish 
innocence ;  but  who,  becoming  gradually  intoxi- 
cated by  the  mere  fumes  of  the  wine  within,  suc- 
cessively fall  from  the  brim  upon  the  project- 
ing bulge  of  the  vase  below,  where  toads  and 
lizards,  snakes  and  vipers,  ravenous  beasts  and 
reptiles  receive  and  prey  upon  them.  Strange 
though  it  seem  to  modem  view,  it  is  nothing  else 
than  the  reconstruction  of  the  visions  of  Homer 
and  Virgil,  when  nymphs  and  sirens  seduced  and 
betrayed  the  Greek  Ulysses  and  the  Trojan 
yEneas  by  the  inflaming  intoxication  of  the  wine- 
cup.  If  men  of  genius  are  found  even  before 
the  days  of -Homer,  long  indeed  before  Moses' 
day,  to  have  had  the  same  vision,  then  it  need 
not  be  wondered  at  that  Mrs.  Jameson  has  traced 
the  preeminent  success  of  the  three  great  masters, 
Lionardo,  Angelo,  and  Raphael,  to  their  absti- 
nence ;    and    that    the    long-lived    caricaturist. 


Artists,  Jurists t  and  Churchmen  Aroused,  ij 

Cruikshank.  has  enlisted  in  the  ranks  of  advo- 
cates for  total  abstinence  from  all  that  can  intoxi- 
cate. Dore  has  studied  the  spirit  of  the  age,  and 
sees  its  moral  drift  He  leads  only  by  yielding 
to  the  current. 

Yet  again,  jurists  and  churchmen  are  com- 
ing, not  reluctantly,  but  with  conscientious 
ardor,  to  weigh  facts,  arguments,  and  appeals 
that  come  from  every  civilized  nation  and 
their  statesmen,  and  from  every  branch  of  the 
Christian  Church  ;  which  latter,  where  established 
Churches  prevail,  finds  its  ultimate  appeal  in 
courts  of  law.  In  Great  Britain  Presbyterian 
Synods  and  Wesleyan  Conferences  are  agitated 
with  discussions  whether  unintoxicating  wines 
may  not  be  furnished  for  the  Lord's  Supper ;  and 
in  the  English  Episcopal  Church  suit  is  actually 
brought  to  test  the  question  whether  the  change 
may  not  be  legally  made.  In  America,  the  multi- 
plying number  of  communicants  brought  into 
churches  from  the  ranks  of  former  inebriates  is 
prompting  from  policy,  if  not  for  conscience'  sake, 
the  use  of  unintoxicating  wine  at  the  Lord's 
Supper.  Meanwhile,  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  Archbishop  Manning  is  heard,  at  Lon- 
don, declaring  that  the  great  evil  of  English 
Christianity  is  the  social  drinking  custom ;  while 
Archbishop,  now  Cardinal,  McCloskey,  three 
winters  ago,  called  on  Irish  Catholics  to  maintain 


1 8  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines, 

the  virtue  of  total  abstinence  from  intoxicating 
liquors,  citing  Christ's  abstinence  during  his  six 
hours  of  agony  on  the  cross  from  the  intoxicating 
wine  offered  Him,  as  the  Divine  call  to  that  vir- 
tue. There  seems,  then,  to  come  from  every 
class  of  thinking  men,  scientists,  artists,  jurists, 
and  moralists,  a  common  call  to  review  the  ques- 
tion of  wines  in  religious  uses. 

THE    MATERIALS    FOR    THIS    SURVEY. 

It  is  remarkable  that  universal  literature  should 
be  permeated  by  statements  of  facts  and  princi- 
ples relating  to  the  use  of  wines ;  an  indication 
most  manifest  that  mankind  have  found  in  it  a 
theme  worthy  of  consideration.  Prior  to  the 
records  of  Moses,  among  the  codes  of  law  al- 
luded to  by  him  as  inferior  to  his  own  writings 
(Deut.  iv.  8),  in  Chaldea,  Egypt,  and  India,  a 
learned  class  left  records  which  indicate  that  men 
had,  at  that  early  day,  so  observed  the  effects  of 
the  use  of  wines  as  to  make  them  the  subjects 
of  legislation.  Thus  the  "  Institutes  of  Menu," 
the  last  of  the  Indian  Vedas,  embody  as  statutes 
founded  on  "immemorial  customs,"  laws  pro- 
hibiting its  use ;  while  also  like  Egyptian  stat- 
utes are  recorded.  The  Hebrew  Scriptures  of 
three  special  ages,  the  patriarchal  history  and 
body  of  laws  written  by  Moses,  the  lyric  and 
didactic  poems  of  the  early  kings    David   and 


Historic  Records  to  Guide.  19 

Solomon,  and  the  prophetic  and  historic  records 
of  the  nation's  decline,  are  full  of  pictures  of  the 
evils  of  wine-drinking ;  and  their  statements  are 
illustrated,  as  well  as  amplified,  in  successive 
Greek,  Latin,  and  modern  European  translations, 
in  the  comments,  during  successive  ages,  of  He- 
brew and  Christian  scholars,  and  by  modern  He- 
braists. The  long  line  of  Greek  and  Roman  classic 
writers,  poets  and  moralists,  physicians  and  natural- 
ists, statesmen  and  horticulturists,  present  testi- 
monies as  varied  and  as  impressive  as  those  of 
Byron  and  Cowper,  yet  all  conspiring.  The  New 
Testament  example  and  teaching  of  Jesus  and  of 
His  Apostles,  and  the  testimony  of  men  in  suc- 
ceeding ages  and  differing  divisions  of  the 
Christian  Church,  such  as  Clement,  Jerome,  and 
Aquinas,  as  to  the  meaning  of  those  teachings,  is 
the  central  and  authoritative  Christian  guide. 
The  Talmud  and  later  Hebrew  traditions  as  to 
Old  Testament  customs,  the  statutes  of  the 
Arabian  prophet,  borrowed  from  Christian  pre- 
cepts as  well  as  from  experience  as  a  legislator, 
and  the  mediaeval  corruptions  of  Jewish,  Christ- 
ian and  Muhammedan  festivities,  bridge  over  the 
dark  period  that  ushers  in  modern  progres. 
Lastly,  the  multiplied  studies  and  encyclopedic 
treatises  of  modern  English  and  American  ad- 
vocates of  social,  moral  and  religious  reforms, 
often  controversial  and  even  partisan,  but  pro- 


20  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

found  in  thought  and  scholarly  in  research,  de- 
mand long  and  calm  consideration,  that  the 
balance  of  truth  may  give  just  weight  to  oppo- 
site opinions  and  to  apparently  conflicting  state- 
ments of  fact. 

CAUSES   OF    DIFFERING   CONCLUSIONS. 

In  the  almost  interminable  labyrinth  of  his- 
toric records  relating  to  the  use  of  wines,  not  only 
the  map  of  the  field  just  outlined,  but  also  some 
clues  to  lead  the  student  out  of  the  necessary 
intricacies  in  which  some  explorers  have  become 
involved,  seem  to  be  needed.  A  few  hints, 
gathered  through  readings  of  nearly  half  a  cen- 
tury from  earliest  childhood,  may  give  aid  to 
some  perplexed  inquirer. 

First. — The  broadness  of  the  field  of  survey 
compels  the  selection  of  central  points  of  ob- 
servation, and  a  grouping  of  minor  details  under 
leading  principles.  Many  now  ask,  as  if  the 
suggestion  were  a  new  one,  "  Why,  if  the  wine 
of  Christ's  employ  were  unintoxicating — why  has 
not  the  fact  been  sooner  brought  out  and  a 
purer  practice  been  maintained  ?  "  Among  those 
familiar  with  the  discussions  on  almost  every 
point  of  Christian  truth  now  existing,  such  as 
divorce,  slavery,  etc.,  which  are  but  the  rever- 
berating echoes  of  centuries  and  ages,  this  sug- 
gestion in  the  first  place  awakens  a  conception 


Causes  of  Differing  Conclusions,         21 

of  the  limitless  field  of  survey.  Modern  science 
in  every  department  invites  division  of  labor ;  a 
single  branch  of  the  great  study,  if  exhaustive, 
demanding  a  life  employ.  It  is  the  work  of  a 
collator  of  such  multiplied  and  minute  observa- 
tions to  search  for  the  common  principles,  and  to 
aim  at  an  analytic  grouping  of  kindred  facts, 
whose  undigested  presentation  confuses  instead 
of  guiding. 

Second, — The  fact  that  the  eye  must  furnish  the 
only  fully  apprehended  facts  for  reasoning  on 
any  subject,  intimates  that  personal  observation 
may  modify  impressions  gained  by  mere  reading. 
This  is  preeminently  noteworthy  in  the  profound 
researches  of  German  scholarship.  While  Egypt 
and  Syria  were  shut  up  by  Muhammedan  prej- 
udice. Von  Bohlen  argued  the  late  origin  of  the 
books  said  to  be  those  of  Moses ;  because,  while 
these  books  refer  to  wine  in  Egypt,  Plutarch  states 
that  the  Egyptians  did  not  drink  wine  before 
the  time  of  Psammiticus,  and  at  that  time  did 
not  offer  it  in  sacrifice.  Hengstenberg,  replying 
when  the  French  invasion  revealed  the  culture 
of  the  vine  and  the  making  of  wine  as  existing 
in  the  days  of  Abraham, — even  Hengstenberg 
but  half  comprehends  the  import  of  Plutarch's 
statement,  and  positively  denies  an  apparent 
statement  of  Herodotus  that  "  the  vine  was  not 
cultured  in  Egypt."     Thorough  personal  obser- 


23  The  Divine  Law  as  to  H'  I'nes. 

vation  would  have  revealed  the  fact  that  in  the 
Valley  of  the  Nile,  reaching  like  Italy  and  the 
American  coast  through  hundreds  of  miles 
from  north  to  south,  with  every  variety  of  soil 
and  product  though  not  of  clime,  Herodotus 
is  speaking  only  of  lower  Egypt ;  while  Plutarch 
refers  specially  to  the  priests,  or  learned  class,  and 
means  by  "wine,"  in  that  connection,  intoxicat- 
ing as  distinct  from  the  unintoxicating  products 
of  the  vine.  Again,  the  limit  of  the  special  ex- 
plorer's field,  the  age  in  which  he  lives,  and  the 
local  and  popular  meaning  of  terms,  may  restrict 
his  view,  and  prevent  the  comprehensiveness  of 
a  conscientious  reporter.  The  differing  reports  of 
Rev.  Eli  Smith,  in  the  mountains  of  Leba- 
non, and  of  Rev.  Mr.  Homes,  at  Constantinople, 
made  within  two  years'  time,  1846  and  1848,  re- 
call the  fact  that  the  ancient  Israelites  had  varie- 
ties of  wines  ;  that  Jerome,  living  for  thirty  years 
in  Palestine,  describes  intoxicating  and  unintoxi- 
cating wine  (vinum) ;  that  the  Arabic  lexicog- 
rapher Freytag  and  the  French  vocabularies 
give  the  common  name,  "  vinum  "  and  "  vinl'  to 
"khamreh,"  the  fermented,  and  to  "sherbet,"  the 
unfermented  product  of  the  vine. 

Third. — The  fact  that  the  influence  of  social 
custom,  and  especially  of  personal  habit,  causes 
an  unconscious  overlooking  of  facts  conflicting 
with  prevalent  opinions  and  observations,  must 


Causes  of  Differing  Conclusions,         23 

be  overcome  before  all  the  facts  and  principles 
brought  before  an  inquirer's  mind  can  be  rightly 
judged.  Any  thoughtful  reader  of  Horace, 
Athenseus,  Byron,  and  kindred  votaries  of 
luxury  and  frivolity,  must  weigh  against  them 
the  sober  statements  of  Virgil,  Plutarch,  Young, 
and  like  calm  reporters  of  truth  for  the  sake  of 
men's  instruction ;  or  the  spirit  of  recent  English 
treatises  on  the  use  of  wine  will  be  sure  to  mis- 
lead. The  important  truth  to  note  is,  that  both 
classes  alike  picture  the  law  and  its  penalty: 
while  the  one  class  make  the  law  their  sport  dur- 
ing the  hour  of  indulgence,  and  its  penalty  their 
curse  when  too  late  it  is  fastened  upon  them. 
The  recent  meeting  of  such  a  mind  as  that  of 
the  Rev.  A.  M.  Wilson,  of  Bathgate,  England 
with  such  a  testimony  as  that  of  Prof.  Moses 
Stuart,  of  Andover,  New  England,  is  a  marked 
illustration  of  the  effect  of  different  moods,  the 
serious  or  sarcastic,  in  viewing  the  same  facts. 

Fourth. — The  fact  that  the  practical  judgment 
of  men  of  differing  temperaments  may  fail  to  ap- 
preciate the  extreme  leanings  to  which  conscien- 
tious conviction  may  lead  wise  and  good  men 
indicates  the  necessity  of  deciding  what  is  the  law 
of  duty  as  to  the  use  of  wine.  Without  doubt 
the  Nazarite  vow  of  total  abstinence  not  only 
from  intoxicating  wines,  but  from  any  nutritious 
product  of  the  vine,  appears  at  first  extreme  and 


24  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

illegitimate.  Yet,  there  may  have  been  no  ex- 
treme, but  conformity  to  strict  law  in  such  ab- 
stinence. The  profound  ethical  writer,  Aristotle, 
who  was  merely  putting  into  form  the  recog- 
nized principle  of  the  wise  in  all  ages,  defined 
virtue  as  the  medium  between  extremes.  The 
virtue  in  physical  indulgence  is  temperance,  the 
medium  between  luxury  and  abstemiousness. 
His  two  rules  for  the  application  of  this  princi- 
ple, however,  are  the  following :  First,  when  the 
danger  is  all  on  one  side,  abstinence  doing  no 
injury,  while  indulgence  might  injure,  it  is  virtue 
to  keep  to  the  extreme  on  the  safe  side.  Sec- 
ond, when  a  wrong  habit  has  been  formed,  a 
bent,  as  in  straightening  a  bow,  to  the  opposite 
extreme  is  absolutely  necessary.  The  extreme 
of  abstinence  in  John,  Christ's  forerunner,  was 
as  truly  God's  law  for  a  man  of  his  impulsive 
nature  as  was  Christ's  use  of  unintoxicating 
wine  God's  law  for  Him  and  His  future  follow- 
ers. 

Fifth. — Since,  in  ancient  as  well  as  modem 
writers,  established  facts  may  be  stated  amid  ob- 
servations and  opinions  only  incidental  and  par- 
tial, which  seem  to  be  adverse  to  the  main  truth, 
no  prejudice  against  the  main  truth  should  arise 
because  of  these  apparently  conflicting  state- 
ments of  a  writer,  or  because  of  the  careless  over- 
statement and  often  unwise  pride  of  scholarship  on 


Causes  of  Differing  Conclusioyis.         25 

the  part  of  those  who  have  misquoted  the  writer. 
Thus  the  statements  of  Solomon,  "  Wine  is  a 
mocker,"  "  At  last  it  biteth  like  a  serpent,"  "  It 
is  not  for  princes  to  drink  wine," — these  are 
unqualified  in  their  declaration ;  and  hence  all 
qualified  utterances  that  seem  to  modify  their 
manifest  assertion  should  not  override,  but  be 
made  to  harmonize  with  these  declarations. 
Again,  the  Hebrew  \^oxdi yayin  is  without  ques- 
tion generic,  rather  than  special,  including  many 
species  of  wines  that  have  more  or  less  of  the 
intoxicating  quality ;  and  yet  yayin  is  not,  like 
the  Greek  oinos,  the  ultimate  genus;  for  the 
Greek  translators  of  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  not 
only  employed  oinos  to  represent  the  Hebrew 
yayin,  but  also  to  represent  the  Hebrew  tirosh^ 
which  is  not  included  in  the  class  yayin.  Again, 
the  masculine  Greek  adjective  glukus  applied  to 
oinos,  rendered  "sweet  wine,"  may  be  shown  by 
the  best  authorities  to  indicate  wines  in  which 
limited  ferment  has  taken  place,  and  in  which, 
therefore,  a  small  proportion  of  alcohol  has  been 
traced.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  the  neuter  noun 
glukos,  sometimes  written  gleukos,  contrasted  as 
to  its  medicinal  qualities  by  Hippocrates,  the 
earliest  Greek  medical  writer,  with  "  sweet  wine," 
is  wine  in  which  the  first  ferment  has  been  pre- 
vented, so  that  it  is  the  Latin  mustum,  or  unfer- 
mented  grape-juice.    The  fact  that  the  failure  to 


26  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

make  these  distinctions,  just  named,  has  led  to 
volumes  of  controversy,  which  only  the  distinc- 
tion here  stated  can  reconcile,  indicates  the  im- 
portance of  this  rule  for  the  examination  and 
citation  of  authorities. 

Sixth. — The  most  subtle,  because  frequently 
the  unconscious  occasion  of  conflict  in  the  esti- 
mate of  facts  relating  to  wines  in  religious  uses, 
is  the  influence  of  professional  etiquette,  in  ex- 
pressing, if  not  in  forming,  an  opinion  adverse  to 
present  customs  and  convictions.  Physicians, 
who  ought  to  be  the  best  judges  of  the  nature 
and  influence  of  alcoholic  drinks,  seem  often  to 
regard  themselves  bound  by  fidelity  to  the  princi- 
ples of  their  school  or  of  their  profession ;  and 
are,  therefore,  indisposed  to  utter  a  scientific 
conviction  adverse  to  that  of  their  less  thought- 
ful and  conscientious  associates.  Indeed,  even 
Christian  missionaries,  with  special  facilities  for 
independent  observation,  may  be  balanced  be- 
tween the  question  whether  it  is  their  duty  to 
foster  controversy  by  taking  part  in  discussions 
which  may  seem  to  many  not  of  vital  moment. 
It  is  only  by  tracing  the  impartial  judgment  of 
medical  men  from  Hippocrates  down  to  our 
own  day,  and  among  physicians,  noting  carefully 
the  testimony  of  "  specialists,"  like  the  physician 
of  Alexander  the  Great,  and  the  superintendents 
of  modern  inebriate  hospitals,  that  the  real  in- 


Causes  of  Differing  Conclusions,         27 

fluence  of  alcohol  on  the  human  system  can  be 
known  as  a  science.  Again,  when  the  first 
glance  impressions  of  devoted  missionaries,  as 
noble  in  spirit  as  Dr.  Duff,  of  Calcutta,  are  ap- 
parently repressed  by  manifestoes  placed  before 
them  for  their  signature,  the  humble  searcher 
for  truth  must  weigh  the  circumstances,  if  he 
would  give  proper  weight  to  the  missionary's  un- 
biased first  impressions  as  against  his  courtesy 
when  discovering  that  unwittingly  the  truth  has 
wounded  those  wedded  to  a  social  custom. 

Seventh. — 'While  professional  etiquette  may 
lead  to  the  withholding  of  individual  conviction 
as  to  the  influence  of  alcoholic  drinks,  want  of 
discrimination  in  observation  or  in  statement 
may  lead  to  a  failure  to  distinguish  between  the 
nature  and  action  of  alcohol  itself,  which  is  but 
one  of  the  ingredients  in  intoxicating  wines,  and 
the  action  of  other  ingredients  of  those  wines 
which  are  nutritive,  stimulating,  or  otherwise 
medicinal.  Without  question,  the  boiled  wines 
of  the  ancients,  from  which  the  alcohol  had  been 
in  part  expelled  by  heat,  and  which  were  found  to 
be  so  much  less  inebriating  that  a  larger  amount 
could  be  drunk  with  impunity — without  question, 
these  wines  had,  in  a  more  concentrated  form, 
the  nutritive  and  restorative  qualities  of  the 
grape-juice  from  which  they  were  made.  So,  in 
modem  wines,  burnt  brandy,  in  cookery  or  in 


28  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

medicine,  from  which  the  alcohol  is  expelled,  is 
both  nutritious  and  medicinal.  When,  therefore, 
the  medical  faculties  prescribe  wines  and  brandies 
as  restoratives  from  the  exhaustion  of  fever,  it 
is  reasonable  to  ask,  as  it  was  asked  in  ancient 
times,  would  not  these  wines  and  brandies  thus 
prescribed  be  even  more  efficacious  if  the  alco- 
holic quality  were  extracted?  When  from  the 
days  of  Hippocrates  this  discrimination  seems  to 
have  been  made  by  Greek  physicians,  it  is  worthy 
of  consideration  whether  more  harmony  in  the 
prescriptions  of  modem  scientific  physicians 
would  not  be  found  to  prevail,  if  the  question 
were  asked  and  answered,  "  Which  of  the  ingre- 
dients in  wines  and  brandies  is  the  restorative  ? 
Is  it  the  portion  of  the  natural  grape-juice  which 
has  been  converted  into  alcohol,  or  that  which 
is  not  alcohol,  that  gives  stimulating  nutriment?" 
In  the  historic  survey  here  attempted  this  last 
rule  will  be  found  of  special  importance. 

Guided  now  by  these  principles  of  judgment, 
the  now  acknowledged  results  of  modern  scien- 
tific investigation  as  to  the  nature  and  origin  of 
alcohol,  and  its  action  on  the  human  system,  may 
be  more  intelligently  considered.  In  the  historic 
survey  which  is  to  follow  that  consideration,  the 
leading  principles  of  investigation  above  stated 
will  be  found  to  have  been  practically  recognized. 
Hence  the  opinions  deduced  from  the  facts  which 


Fermenting  Ingredient  in  Grape-^uice,  29 

have  guided  legislators  and  moral  and  religious 
teachers,  may  be  the  better  appreciated ;  and  the 
weight  to  be  given  to  these  convictions  of  men 
of  other  ages,  in  their  bearing  on  modern  ques- 
tions as  to  the  law  of  wines,  may  perhaps  become 
more  apparent. 

ELEMENTS    IN    GRAPE-JUICE    WHICH    GIVE    ORIGIN 
TO    FERMENT. 

In  grape-juice  are  found  two  of  the  leading  in- 
gredients which  furnish  nutrition  to  plant  and 
animal  organism :  sugar,  composed  of  the  three 
chemical  elements,  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxy. 
gen;  and  gluten  or  albumen,  composed  of  the 
four  elements,  carbon,  hydrogen,  oxygen  and  ni- 
trogen, to  which  is  also  added  a  small  amount 
of  sulphur  and  phosphorus.  The  watery,  sweet 
juice,  flowing  between  the  skin  and  the  central 
seed-envelope,  is  chiefly  sugar  dissolved  in  water ; 
while  the  gluten  is  gathered  in  the  pulp  that 
lines  the  skin  and  in  the  seed-envelope  at  the 
center  of  the  grape.  Nitrogen,  in  all  its  com- 
pounds, is  an  unstable  element ;  ready  to  release 
itself  from  one  union  and  to  seek  another. 
Hence  it  has  a  double  office :  to  hasten  the  decay 
and  decomposition  of  worn-out  vegetable  and  ani- 
mal organisms ;  and  this,  that  it  may  fulfill  its  main 
mission  of  acting  as  the  propelling  agent  in  the 
composition  and  promotion  of  new  organisms. 


30  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines, 

It  is  at  once  the  destroyer  of  old  and  the  organ- 
izer of  new  compounds. 

When  the  two  classes  of  nutritious  ingredients 
found  in  the  grape-juice,  namely,  sugar  and  al- 
bumen, are  in  contact,  the  nitrogen  of  the  albu- 
men is  disposed  to  act  on  the  sugar,  and  change 
it  into  new  ingredients.  In  order  to  this  action, 
two  intermediate  agents  must  be  present :  water 
and  the  oxygen  of  the  air.  The  impenetrable 
skin  of  the  grape  excludes  the  oxygen  of  the  air, 
and  by  the  process  of  drying  the  water  may  be 
evaporated  through  the  skin,  so  that  the  action 
of  the  albumen  on  the  sugar  will  be  permanently 
prevented.  The  dried  raisin  may  be  kept  for 
years  unchanged.  If,  however,  the  skin  be  rup- 
tured, and  the  approach  of  the  oxygen  of  the 
air  be  secured,  a  chemical  change  immediately 
commences,  which  in  a  few  hours  will  become 
apparent ;  and  which,  if  unarrested,  will  cause  a 
series  of  transformations  in  the  compounds  suc- 
cessively developed.  If,  however,  when  the  skin 
is  thus  ruptured,  the  watery,  sweet  juice  be  gently 
pressed  out,  so  as  to  leave  the  glutinous  albu- 
men in  the  skin,  the  sugar  will  be  so  separated 
from  the  albumen  that  the  change  produced 
will  be  very  slight.  On  the  contrary,  if  a 
heavy  pressure  be  exerted  on  the  grape,  which 
shall  expel  the  albumen  as  well  as  the  sugar,  and 
leave  them  mingled  together  in  the  open  aii,the 


Nature  of  Ferment  and  its  Products.      31 

chemical  changes  will  be  both  rapid  and  radical. 
The  changes  thus  wrought  are  called  "  ferments; " 
changes  whose  laws  have  been  practically  known 
to  mankind  in  all  ages  the  records  of  whose  his- 
tory are  preserved. 

THE    NATURE    OF    FERMENT    AND    ITS  PRODUCTS. 

The  word  "  ferment,"  from  the  Latin  fervere, 
to  boil,  whence  also  the  word  "  effervesce,"  calls 
attention  to  the  rise  and  escape  of  bubbles, 
which  soon  appears  when  expressed  grape-juice 
is  exposed  to  the  air.  It  is  likewise  observed  in 
the  action  of  yeast  on  rising  bread,  and  in  the 
effervescence  of  soda-water,  beer,  cider,  and 
corked  wines.  This  ebullition  is  but  the  visible 
indication  of  connected  changes,  by  which  the 
elements  composing  grape-sugar  are  converted 
into  compounds  including  eight  subdivisions ; 
two  of  which  are  alcohol,  two  water,  and  four 
carbonic  acid  gas,  whose  escape  causes  the  ob- 
served effervescence.  The  following  table  indi- 
cates, first,  the  chemical  elements  in  the  grape- 
sugar  ;  second,  their  redistribution  after  the  first 
ferment. 

Grape-sugar  contains,  and  its  three  results,  al- 
cohol, water,  and  carbonic  acid,  receive,  the  fol- 
lowing elements  in  the  proportions  indicated  by 
their  numbers; 


32  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines, 

COMPOUNDS. ELEMENTS  IN  THEIR   PROPORTIONS 

Carbon.  Hydrogen.  Oxygen^ 
Grape-sugar 12  14  14 

Alcohol 8  12  4 

Water o  2  t 

Carbonic  acid 4  o  8 

Total 12  14  14 

The  presence  of  a  large  proportion  of  water,  mixed 
with  the  sugar  in  grape-juice,  causes  the  propor- 
tion of  alcohol  in  wines  to  be  small ;  although, 
as  indicated,  24  parts  out  of  40  equivalents  found 
in  the  grape-sugar  itself  have  been  convfrfed 
into  alcohol.  It  is  the  alcohol  which  forms  the 
intoxicating  element  in  wines.  This  ferment, 
however,  called  the  "vinous  or  alcoholic  fer- 
ment," is  but  the  first  stage  tending  to  an  ul- 
timate result ;  which,  if  Nature  be  not  interfered 
with  in  her  law  of  action,  will  soon  appear. 

In  the  vinous  ferment,  the  change  of  grape- 
sugar  into  alcohol,  water,  and  carbonic  arid  gas 
will  go  on  till  all  the  sugar  is  transformed  ;  while 
the  exhaustion  of  the  nitrogen  in  the  albumen 
is  but  partial.  The  remaining  albumen  now  he- 
gins  to  act  upon  the  alcohol,  diluted  as  it  is  in 
water.  In  this  action,  the  alcohol  is  first  decom- 
posed by  the  union  of  two  atoms  of  its  hydrj^ren 
with  two  portions  of  oxygen  from  the  air ;  fuk  wish- 
ing thus  the  two  compounds,  aldehyde  and  vater. 


Nature  of  Ferment  and  its  Products.      ^iZ 

The  ferment  proper  here  ceases ;  but  by  oxida 
tion  two  more  atoms  of  oxygen  are  absorbed  by 
the  new  compound  aldehyde,  thus  converting  it 
into  acetic  acid  or  vinegar;  the  nutritive  com- 
pound, which,  as  its  name,  derived  from  the 
French,  indicates,  is  simply  "  sour  wine."  And 
yet  Nature's  end  is  not  complete. 

The  universally  recognized  chemical  changes 
thus  wrought  in  Nature  by  ferment  may  be 
traced  in  any  one  of  the  ordinary  text-books,  as 
those  of  Silliman,  Wells,  Youmans,  Rolfe  and 
Gillet ;  they  may  be  historically  reviewed  in  the 
exhaustive  articles  found  in  the  best  English, 
French,  and  American  encyclopedias  ;  or  they 
may  be  analyzed  in  their  scientific  principles 
as  they  touch  on  philosophic  theories,  in  such 
works  as  those  of  Liebig  and  Helmholtz.  The 
important  truth  to  hold  in  mind  in  all  this  ex- 
amination is,  that  we  are  not  entitled  to  infer 
authoritatively  what  is  the  design  of  the  Creator 
until  we  have  reached  the  last  of  the  series  of 
the  changes  wrought  by  ferment.  The  three 
upon  which  attention  is  to  be  fixed  are,  first,  the 
formation  of  alcohol ;  second,  of  vinegar ;  third, 
of  food  for  new  plants  and  animals. 

Liebig,  of  Germany,  says,  that  "  while  the  vi- 
nous ferment  is  going  on,  the  acetous  ferment 
can  not  begin ; "  thus  indicating  that  the  form- 
ing of  alcohol   is   but  the   first   in  successive 


34  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wi?ies. 

changes  designed  by  the  Creator.  Colon,  of 
France,  more  fully  indicates  the  formation  of 
alcohol  as  a  transition  change,  by  stating  that 
acetous,  or  the  second  stage  of  ferment,  is  the 
"  portant  I'alcool  d'une  liqueur  spiritueuse  k  celui 
de  vin  aigre  " — the  "  carrying  over  the  alcohol  of 
a  spirituous  liquor  to  that  of  sour  wine."  Liebig, 
and  others,  again,  call  attention  to  the  fact  that 
cane-sugar  must  be  converted  into  grape-sugar, 
and  the  starch  of  grain  be  transformed  into  the 
same  sugar,  before  vinous  or  alcoholic  ferment 
can  take  place.  Hence,  in  obtaining  spirituous 
liquors,  such  as  beer,  from  grain,  advantage  is 
taken  of  the  fact,  that  in  the  germination  of  any 
seed,  as  barley,  the  starch  in  the  seed-envelope  is 
by  the  moisture  and  heat  converted  into  sugar  as 
the  germ  sprouts  and  grows.  Hence,  malt  for 
beer  is  prepared  by  moistening  and  gently  heat- 
ing the  grain  ;  then  allowing  it  to  sprout  until 
the  starch  is  converted  into  sugar ;  and  then  de- 
stroying the  germ  and  concentrating  the  sugar 
by  drying  and  baking ;  after  which  the  glutinous 
ferment  can  be  added,  and  made  to  act.  Helm- 
holtz  discovered  that,  as  ferment  proceeds,  living 
plant  -  organisms  are  formed ;  and  though  it 
was  at  first  overlooked  that  these  organisms 
spring  from  germs  of  microscopic  minuteness 
floating  in  the  air,  which  the  action  of  the  nitro- 
gen in  the  ferment  causes  to  develop  into  ceil-* 


Mode  of  Concentrating  Alcohol.         35 

formations,  Helmholtz  reached  the  legit  mate 
conclusion  that  ferment  is  ultimately  designed 
to  nurture  new  life.  Certainly  the  mind  that 
stops  short  at  the  first  product  of  ferment,  the 
alcohol,  which  will  be  changed  into  vinegar  if 
left  to  pass  into  nature's  second  product,  is  not 
entitled  to  decide  that  alcohol  is  a  product  de- 
signed for  man's  use  by  his  Creator.  All  putre- 
faction, of  which  ferment  is  one  form,  has  as  its 
ultimate  design  to  start  and  nurture  new  forms 
of  life. 

THE    NATURE    OF    ALCOHOL,   AND    ITS    EFFECT    ON 
THE    HUMAN    SYSTEM. 

As  already  noted,  but  a  portion  of  the  ele- 
ments constituting  sugar  are  converted  by  fer- 
ment into  alcohol ;  and  as  a  large  portion  of 
grape-juice  is  water,  in  which  the  sugar  is  dis- 
solved, the  alcohol  in  wine  may  be  but  a  small 
ingredient.  It  is  important  to  note  what  alco- 
hol, in  its  concentrated  essence,  is ;  since  its  ef- 
fect on  the  system  may  be  partially  neutralized 
by  other  ingredients  drunk  with  it. 

The  name  al-cohol  is  Arabic ;  and  is  in  itself 
most  significant.  As  alcohol  is  converted  at  a 
heat  of  173"  F.  from  its  fluid  into  a  gaseous 
form,  a  heat  of  about  175°  will  cause  the  alcohol 
in  wine  to  pass  off  in  vapor ;  while  most  of  the 
water,  which  evaporates  partially  at  any  temper- 


;^6  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

ature,  but  rapidly  and  completely  at  212°  F., 
remains  with  the  other  ingredients  of  the  wine. 
This  vapor  of  alcohol,  thus  driven  off  with  some 
water-vapor  accompanying  it,  may  be  made  to 
pass  through  a  cool  pipe  or  still,  and  be  con- 
densed again  into  a  liquid,  most  of  which  is  pure 
alcohol.  Alcohol  was  thus  obtained  in  the 
twelfth  century  by  Al-Bucasis,  an  Arabian 
chemist ;  in  the  thirteenth  century,  Raymond 
Sully  removed  the  remaining  water  by  quick- 
lime ;  and  in  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  Lavoisier  and  Saussure,  French  chem- 
ists, analyzed  pure  alcohol,  showing  the  elements 
of  which  it  is  composed. 

The  fact  that  the  Arabian  chemist  who  first 
concentrated  alcohol,  discovered  by  experiment 
that  it  was  a  most  deadly  poison,  led  to  its  des- 
ignation. The  Arabic  name  for  sulphuret  of 
antimony,  the  mineral  poison  known  to  the 
Greeks  as  stimini,  and  to  the  Romans  as  stibium, 
is  koht.  Known  to  the  Egyptians  in  the  earliest 
times,  this  compound  was  used  by  women,  to 
paint  the  inner  rim  of  the  eyelids,  so  as  to  make 
a  dark  ring  about  the  eyes,  thus  setting  off  the 
white  of  the  eyeball  by  the  strong  contrast  of 
color.  This  fancied  decoration,  continued  in  all 
ages  on  the  east  of  the  Mediterranean,  after  a 
time  deadens  the  secretions  of  the  skin,  causing 
at  last  the  eyelashes  to  fall  out.     In  the  tombs 


Al-cohol  the  Arabic  for  Antimony.       2)7 

of  Egypt,  among  other  articles  for  the  toilet 
deposited  with  the  dead,  were  small  wooden 
bottles  of  this  sulphuret  of  antimony,  with 
the  sticks  used  to  apply  it  to  the  eyelids ;  and 
the  Arabs  recognize  the  article  as  the  kohl  of 
their  bazaars  and  toilet-tables.  The  properties 
of  this  compound  are  fully  described  by  Dios- 
corides,  a  Greek  botanist  and  physician,  who,  in 
the  time  of  Nero  and  of  Christ's  Apostles,  trav- 
eled throughout  the  Roman  Empire  in  Europe, 
Asia  and  Africa,  and  prepared  five  books  "  On 
the  Materia  Medica"  (Peri  Hyles  latrikes), which 
became  the  standard  authority  for  fifteen  cent- 
uries. It  is  this  work  which  gives  clearness  to 
the  views  of  ancient  Greek  physicians  as  to  the 
influence  of  "wine"  as  a  medicament.  The 
name  kohl  is  derived  from  kahal,  a  verb  mean- 
ing to  "  paint  with  antimony  ;"  with  the  second- 
ary meaning  to  "  render  sterile."  The  applica- 
tion of  this  term,  al-cohol,  the  concentrated  kohl, 
indicates  its  character  as  recognized  by  the  first 
observers.  All  medical  and  chemical  authorities 
agree  that  pure  alcohol  is  a  most  active  poison  ; 
excoriating  and  deadening  when  applied  exter- 
nally to  the  skin  ;  and  yet  more  active  and  deadly 
when  received  inwardly  upon  the  delicate  mem- 
branes of  the  mouth,  throat,  and  stomach. 

This  universally  recognized  and  admitted  fact^ 
that  concentrated  alcohol  is  an  active  poison. 


38  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines, 

prepares  the  way  for  a  harmonizing  of  the  state- 
ments of  ancient  and  modern  observers  as  to  the 
action  of  diluted  alcohol ;  especially  for  the  an- 
cient Grecian  and  Roman  distinction  between 
wines  mixed  and  unmixed  —  sweet,  sour,  and 
pure — and  between  must  and  wine  ;  as  also  many 
other  specific  designations  which  have  prevailed 
from  the  days  of  Hippocrates,  the  earliest 
Greek  physician.  It  will  especially  show  why 
Hippodfates  styled  pure,  unmixed  wine  as  a 
medicament,  pharmakon  ;  and  why  all  through 
the  history  of  Greco-Latin  literature,  Philo,  the 
Hebrew,  Pliny  the  Roman,  Jerome  and  other 
Christian  writers,  designated  pure  or  intoxicating 
wine  as  "  venenum,"  poison.  It  explains,  too, 
why  the  ablest  English  and  American  physicians, 
called  to  the  self-denying,  patient,  and  conscien- 
tious effort  to  cure  inebriates,  and  resorting  to 
every  form  of  experiment  to  test  the  action  of 
alcohol,  in  the  minutest  quantities,  on  the  human 
system,  have  become  more  and  more  unanimous 
in  their  declared  convictions.  While  the  ingre- 
dients of  wine  and  of  malt  liquors,  as  well  as  of 
brandies  prepared  from  them,  may  have^valuable 
nutritive  and  medicinal  qualities,  it  is  quite 
otherwise  with  the  alcohol  that  is  intermixed 
with  them.  Alcohol  imbibed  by  a  healthy  per- 
son passes  undigested  and  unchanged  through 
the  system,  exciting  to  a  feverish  action  the  tis- 


Resorts  to  Arrest  Alcoholic  Kerment.      39 

sues,  especially  those  of  the  nerves,  which  it 
touches ;  and  it  is  finally  discharged  unchanged 
mainly  through  the  exhalations  of  the  skin  and 
lungs;  being,  in  fact,  expelled  as  an  intruder. 
Alcohol  imbibed  in  disease,  as  even  Hippocrates 
discovered,  instead  of  being  a  healthful  stimulant; 
is  rather  an  overacting  irritant.  Like  the  min- 
eral medicines  used  by  truly  scientific  pharmacy, 
it  may  be  resorted  to  as  a  choice  of  evils ;  but  it 
is  a  resort  most  ruinous  in  its  effect  if  employed 
in  any  other  than  cases  where  a  powerful  irritant 
is  necessary. 

RESORTS    TO    ARREST    FERMENT    IN    WINES   AND 
DIMINISH    ITS    ALCOHOL. 

In  all  the  survey  thus  far  followed,  and  in  all 
the  history  yet  to  be  traced,  it  should  be  dis- 
tinctly kept  in  mind  that  distilled  intoxicants 
are  modern  inventions ;  and  it  is  not  their  nature 
or  effects  which  is  in  question.  It  is  the  alco- 
holic property  in  fermented  wines  alone,  which, 
mingled  with  other  and  nutritive  properties  in 
the  juice  of  the  grape,  is  the  theme  of  ancient 
and  medieval  history ;  and  it  is  the  nature  and  ef- 
fect of  alcohol  hidden  in  wines  that  is  to  be  con- 
sidered. 

It  might  be  expected  that  the  early  knowl- 
edge that  alcohol  is  an  irritant,  and  in  that  re- 
spect a  poison,  would  prompt  the  wise  and  the 


40  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

good,  the  men  of  science  and  of  humanity,  to 
seek  some  method  of  diminishing,  if  not  of  avert- 
ing, the  tendency  of  human  nature  to  use  alco- 
holic drinks  not  only  as  a  luxury,  but  as  a  relief, 
such  as  alcoholic  liquors,  doubtless,  do  temporar- 
ily afford,  from  the  penalty  of  over-indulgence  or 
overwork.  For,  universal  observation  has  ad- 
duced these  three  as  the  causes  which  tempt  men 
to  the  use  of  alcoholic  beverages :  first,  those 
who  indulge  in  the  luxuries  of  the  table,  seek  the 
stimulus  of  wine  to  counteract  the  natural  law 
which  should  check  overeating;  second,  those 
who  have  overworked,  either  physically  or  men- 
tally, begin  its  use  as  a  temporary  recuperation, 
forgetting  that  true  recuperation  can  only  come 
by  cessation  from  toil ;  third,  those  whom  disap- 
pointed hope  or  bodily  disease  prompts  to  seek 
relief  for  the  hour  by  drowning  thought  and 
sensibility.  The  history  of  all  ages  shows  that 
not  only  the  responsible  guardians  of  society, 
but  even  the  victims  of  inebriation,  have  recog- 
nized that  alcohol,  or  the  intoxicating  quality  in 
wines,  is  one  to  be  either  restricted  or  diminished, 
if  not  entirely  eradicated.  It  is  a  surprising  con- 
firmation of  the  like  promptings  of  human  in- 
stinct and  the  like  convictions  of  common  ex- 
perience, that  they  have  led  to  substantially  the 
same  resorts  in  all  ages  to  diminish  the  intoxi- 
cating quality  of  fermented  wines. 


Resorts  to  Prevent  Alcoholic  Ferment.      41 

From  the  nature  of  grape-juice  and  the  causes 
of  ferment  in  it,  various  methods  of  preventing 
and  also  of  limiting  the  formation  of  its  intox- 
icating property  have  been  suggested  in  ages 
ancient  and  modern.  First.  As  the  presence  of 
water  is  essential  to  the  formation  of  alcohol 
from  grape-sugar,  the  simple  drying  of  the  grape 
before  the  skin  is  broken  permanently  arrests  al- 
coholic ferment ;  a  fact  which  permits  the  Jews 
of  modern  times  to  produce  from  crushed  and 
moistened  raisins  the  original  grape-juice  in  pre- 
paring their  Paschal  wines.  Second.  As  the 
sugar  in  the  grape  is  concentrated  in  the  flowing 
juice,  while  the  albumen  which  causes  ferment 
is  in  the  pulp  lining  the  skin  and  inclosing  the 
seeds,  a  separation  of  these  two  prevents  ferment. 
This  was  effected  by  the  Romans,  and  even  by 
the  Egyptians,  in  these  two  ways :  first,  by  gently 
pressing  the  grapes  so  that  the  sweet  fluid  alone 
oozed  from  the  skins ;  second,  by  straining  the 
juice  in  the  vat  so  as  to  exclude  the  pulpy  por- 
tions. Third.  As  a  temperature  above  50**  F., 
and  thence  to  about  85°,  is  essential  for  the 
ferment  that  raises  bread,  causes  seed  to  germi- 
nate, and  produces  alcohol,  the  placing  of  grape- 
juice  in  cold  water  or  in  a  cool  cellar  arrests  fer- 
ment. Fourth.  As  the  presence  of  oxygen  in 
the  air  is  essential  to  acetous,  if  not  to  vinous 
fermentation,  exclusion  of  the  air  by  tight  cork- 


42  'Ike  Divine  Law  as  to  Wt7zes. 

ing  arrests,  if  it  does  not  entirely  prevent,  fer- 
mentation. Fifth.  As  artificial  heating  drives 
off  water,  whose  presence  is  essential  to  fermen- 
tation, the, boiling  of  grape-juice  to  a  syrup,  the 
debhs  of  the  Hebrews  and  the  dibs  of  the  Arabs, 
prevents  the  formation  of  alcohol.  Sixth.  As 
the  increase  of  the  proportion  of  sulphur  in  the 
albuminous  parts  of  grape-juice  is  found  to  limit 
the  action  of  its  nitrogenous  element,  ancient  ex- 
periment as  well  as  modern  science  has  attested 
that  the  addition  of  sulphur,  found  in  the  sul- 
phurous pumice-stone  of  volcanic  Italy,  arrests 
the  alcoholic  fermentation  in  grape-juice.  The 
fact  that  by  these  processes  throughout  the  Ro- 
man Empire  before  Christ's  day,  unintoxicating 
must  formed  from  grape-juice,  as  well  as  sweet 
drinks,  like  the  sherbets  of  modern  Palestine  and 
the  Levant,  were  in  common  use,  and  were  es- 
pecially employed  in  religious  rites,  must  serve  as 
a  guiding  light  in  tracing  the  law  of  wines  in  re- 
ligious uses. 

Since,  however,  another  class  of  facts,  in  the 
ancient  history  of  wines,  has  arrested  the  atten- 
tion of  many  modern  scholars,  the  methods  of 
limiting  and  diminishing  the  proportion  of  the 
intoxicating  element  in  wines  must  also  be  enu- 
merated. First.  As  the  action  of  the  albumin- 
ous ingredients  of  grape-juice,  when  not  excluded 
by  straining,  is  gradual  in  the  formation  of  alco- 


Resorts  to  Limit  Alcoholic  Ferment.      43 

hoi,  the  arrest  at  any  stage  of  the  alcoholic  fer- 
ment by  either  of  the  methods  used  to  anticipate 
and  prevent  that  ferment,  would  limit  the  amount 
of  the  intoxicating  quality  in  wines.  Second. 
Effervescing  wines  have  in  all  ages  been  obtained 
by  arresting  at  an  early  stage  the  ferment,  and 
bottling  wine  in  flasks  strong  enough  to  resist 
the  pressure  of  still  forming  carbonic  acid ;  as 
sparkling  beers,  ciders,  and  the  wines  called 
"  Champagne,"  are  now  preserved.  Third.  Sweet 
wines  have  been  obtained  by  drawing  off  the 
sugary  from  the  albuminous  parts  of  grape-juice, 
and  thus  allowing  but  a  limited  portion  of  fer- 
ment to  remain  ;  so  that  after  the  albumen  is  ex- 
hausted much  of  the  sugar  is  unaffected ;  when, 
by  corking,  the  acetic  ferment  is  also  prevented. 
Fourth.  Sour  wines  have  been  obtained  in  two 
ways  in  southern  latitudes :  by  allowing  the  acetic 
ferment  to  follow  and  to  correct,  to  a  certain  ex. 
tent,  the  alcoholic  ferment,  producing  wines 
which  are  commented  upon  by  Grecian  and  Ro- 
man writers ;  or,  in  northern  latitudes,  from 
grapes  not  ripened  fully  by  the  northern  sun, 
and  retaining  largely  the  acid  of  the  unripe  grape, 
as  is  seen  in  modern  Rhine  wines.  Fifth.  Mulled, 
or  softened  wines,  have  been  prepared  by  being 
boiled  at  an  early  stage  of  fermentation,  thus  ex- 
pelling alcohol  and  deadening  the  albumen,  and 
by  adding  sugar  and  spices.     Sixth.  Wines  in 


44  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

which  the  alcoholic  ferment  is  complete  have,  in 
all  ages,  been  diluted  with  water,  so  as,  according 
to  the  ancient  witnesses  to  be  cited,  to  deaden 
the  "  poison  "  always  to  be  dreaded  in  "  unmixed 
wine."  A  careful  fixing  in  mind  that,  for  "  relig- 
ious "  reasons,  wise  and  good  men  have,  in  all 
ages,  used  these  varied  and  carefully  -  studied 
methods  of  limiting,  and  thus  correcting  the  in- 
ebriating influence  of  pure  wines,  will  help  to 
harmonize  the  statements  of  those  who  contend 
that  intoxicating  wines  are,  and  always  have 
been,  deemed  appropriate  in  Jewish  and  Chris- 
tian rites. 

WINE    IN    THE    EARLIEST    HISTORIC    AGES. 

The  nations  successively  known  in  history 
have  all  had  a  traditional  or  prehistoric  period 
The  first  developed  peoples  of  Asia  attained  their 
historic  period  2,000  years  before  Christ ;  those 
in  the  successive  European  nations,  Grecian, 
Roman,  and  German,  came  later  and  gradually 
to  be  known  in  written  records ;  while  the  tribes 
of  Africa  are  still  unknown  in  their  rudeness. 
The  period  of  earliest  historic  records  here  to  be 
traced,  so  far  as  wine  is  concerned,  extends  from 
the  age  of  Noah  to  Jacob  ;  during  the  latter  part 
of  which  period  Asiatic  nationalities  were  begin- 
ning to  consolidate.  The  records  of  this  history 
are  found  in  the  first  book  of  Moses'  history  and 


Wine  in  the  Earliest  Historic  Records.    45 

m  the  poem  of  Job ;  while  the  representations 
on  Egyptian  monuments,  and  the  allusions  of 
Grecian  and  Roman  historians  to  the  earliest 
preserved  traditions,  add  to  the  light  of  those 
written  records. 

It  is  recorded  of  the  pious  patriarch  who  was 
preserved  from  the  Deluge  (Gen.  ix.  20,  21): 
"  Noah  began  to  be  a  husbandman,  and  he 
planted  a  vineyard.  And  he  drank  of  the  wine 
thereof,  and  was  drunken."  Origen,  the  eminent 
Christian  writer  who,  about  a.  d.  230  to  270,  was 
employed  twenty-eight  years  in  revising  the  text ' 
of  the  Greek  translation  of  the  Old  Testament, 
makes  this  important  comment  on  this  record. 
The  expression  "  began  to  be,"  indicating  inex- 
perience, suggests  a  marked  contrast  between 
the  sin  of  Adam,  who,  by  express  command,  was 
warned  against  the  forbidden  tree ;  while  Noah, 
with  a  like  temptation,  was  to  learn  only  by  ex- 
perience a  law  which,  when  learned,  was  to  con- 
trol his  future  conduct  In  harmony  with  this 
is  the  record  of  Lot ;  who  from  worldly  inclina- 
tions, fostered  by  corrupting  female  influence, 
was  drugged,  perhaps  unconsciously,  yet  not 
without  guilt  (Gen.  xix.  33).  The  curse  on  the 
son  who  indecently  sported  with  his  father's 
shame  (Gen.  ix.  24) ;  and  the  debasing  prosti- 
tution of  the  daughters  who  drugged  their  weak 
father,  are  Moses'  own  unmistakable  comment 


46  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines, 

on  this  earliest  illustration  that  "  wine  is  a 
mocker ; "  to  be  resisted  as  truly  as  the  tempter 
in  Eden.  The  terms  in  which  Moses,  comment- 
ing on  his  own  record,  characterizes  the  wine 
with  which  Noah  was  drugged,  calling  it  "  the 
wine  of  Sodom,  the  poison  of  dragons"  (Deut 
xxxii.  32,  2iZ)^  indicates  the  recognition  of  the 
two  classes  of  wines,  intoxicating  and  unintoxi- 
cating,  which  he  makes  throughout  his  connected 
writings.  The  comments  of  the  Talmud  will  be 
seen  in  their  place  as  the  suggestion  of  their  age. 
In  contrast  with  this  abuse  of  intoxicating 
wine,  a  series  of  records  indicates  an  early  knowl- 
edge of  the  mode  of  preparing  the  juice  of  the 
grape  without  those  intoxicating  qualities  which 
destroy  health,  reason,  morality,  and  piety.  MeL 
chisedek,  the  type  of  the  Divine  Redeemer 
(Gen.  xiv.  18  ;  Heb.  vii.  1-17),  is  related  to  have 
brought  forth,  as  "  the  priest  of  Most  High  God, 
bread  and  wine,  "  of  which  Abraham,  the  head 
of  the  family  through  whom  Christ  was  to  de- 
scend, was  made  to  partake ;  an  incident  so 
manifestly  anticipatory  of  Christ's  ordinance, 
first  of  the  Passover,  and  again  of  the  Supper, 
that  Jewish  and  Christian  scholars  have  remarked 
the  parallel.  Josephus  calls  attention  to  the  resi- 
dence of  Abraham  at  this  era  near  Hebron,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  valley  of  Eshcol,  which  had  given 
a  home  to  one  of  the  military  chiefs  then  confed- 


Early  Names  for  Two  Distinct  Wines,    47 

ate  with  him  (Gen.  xiii.  18;  xiv.  24);  a  region 
which  then,  as  ever  after  to  this  day,  has  fur- 
nished the  purest  and  sweetest  of  products  of 
the  vine.  In  keeping  with  this  fact  are  several 
incidents  of  Abraham's  descendants  for  three 
generations.  Isaac,  in  blessing  his  sons,  after 
partaking  of  the  wine  brought  by  Jacob,  asks 
for  Jacob  "plenty  of  com  and  wine,"  and  for 
Esau  likewise,  the  same  "  fatness  of  the  earth '' 
(Gen.  xxvii.  25-39)  J  ^  record  which  indicates 
that  the  grape,  as  universal  a  product  as  is  grain, 
is,  in  its  simple  nature,  as  much  a  Divine  and 
blessed  gift  as  is  the  bread  associated  with  it. 
The  use  of  the  word  tirosh,  as  distinct  from 
yayifi,  for  the  first  time  in  this  record  indicates, 
as  will  be  seen  further  on,  the  introduction  either 
of  a  new  product  of  the  grape,  or  the  era  of  more 
careful  distinction  among  its  products,  which  the 
patriarchs,  by  experience,  had  found  to  be  im- 
portant. The  record  of  the  Egyptian  butler's 
dream,  interpreted  by  Joseph,  indicates  yet  more 
the  distinction  in  wines  according  to  the  mode 
of  preparing,  which  guides  the  pen  of  Moses. 
In  the  dream,  the  whole  process  of  the  budding, 
blossoming,  forming,  and  maturing  of  the  grape- 
cluster  on  the  vi^ie  passes  before  the  butler ;  and 
then  his  own  pressing  of  the  juice  into  Pharaoh's 
cup.  The  full  significance  of  this  picture  of  that 
age  will  appear  in  our  notice  of  wines  in  Egypt ; 


48  The  Divine  Law  as  io  Wines* 

and  it  is  sufficient  here  to  observe  the  explana- 
tion given  by  Josephus,  the  Jewish  historian. 
"The  butler  related,"  Josephus  writes  (Ant.  II. 
V.  2),  "  that  he  squeezed  the  clusters  into  a  cup 
which  the  king  held  in  his  hand ;  and  when  he 
had  strained  the  sweet-juice  (gleukos),  he  gave  it 
to  the  king  to  drink."  The  mode  of  preparation, 
verified  by  the  monuments  of  Egypt,  the  dis- 
tinction made  by  the  Jewish  commentator  be- 
tween gleukos,  sweet -juice,  and  oinos  glukos, 
sweet -wine,  soon  to  be  noted,  indicates  that 
Moses,  in  this  record  of  the  patriarchal  age,  is 
preparing  the  way  for  the  reception  of  his  own 
laws  as  to  the  use  of  wine.  It  is  to  be  noted 
that  the  word  "  wine "  does  not  appear  in  this 
record  ;  a  fact  which  guides  Jerome,  the  early 
Latin  translator  and  commentator,  when  he  com- 
pares the  wine  of  the  Lord's  Supper  with  this  of 
Joseph's  day.  This  record,  too,  is,  without  doubt, 
a  guide  to  the  allusion  made  by  Moses  to  the 
entertainment  given  by  Joseph  to  his  brethren, 
when  "  they  drank  and  were  filled  "  (Gen.  xliii. 
34) ;  the  word  "  wine "  here,  as  in  the  pre- 
vious statement,  not  appearing.  Yet  another 
and  important  fact  appears  in  the  contrasted 
mention  of  "  honey,"  Hebrew,  debsk,  Arab,  dibs, 
or  grape-syrup,  sent  by  Jacob* (Gen.  xliii.  u) 
as  a  present  to  Joseph  ;  this  mention  indicating 
that  in  the  patriarchal  age,  as  now  under  Mu- 


The  Early  Term,   ''Blood  of  Grapes y    49 

hammedan  rule,  the  grape-juice,  so  abundant  in 
the  valleys  north  of  Hebron,  was  converted  into 
a  syrup  which  forms  an  important  article  of 
commerce.  This  connection,  as  well  as  the 
wording  of  Moses'  record,  explains  Jacob's  bless- 
ing on  Judah,  who  was  afterward  to  inherit  the 
valleys  which  his  ancestors  from  Abraham  had 
occupied ;  where  the  vines,  besides  yielding  an 
abundance  of  grapes  for  man's  consumption, 
would  furnish  food  for  the  beasts  of  burden  that 
bore  the  products  of  the  vintage  to  the  wine- 
vats  ;  J  udah  "  binding  his  foal  unto  the  vine, 
even  his  ass's  colt  unto  the  choice  vine ; "  while 
"  he  washed  "  or  saturated  "  his  garments  in  wine 
and  his  clothes  in  the  blood  of  grapes."  No  im- 
partial student  of  this  record  of  history,  which 
Moses  made  an  introduction  to  his  laws,  can  fail 
to  learn  the  lessons  which  the  laws  of  the  Egyp- 
tians, Chaldeans,  and  Indians,  as  well  as  of 
Moses,  are  adapted  to  impress. 

In  the  poem  of  Job,  whose  life,  extended  to 
the  age  of  the  earlier  ancestry  of  Abraham  (Job 
xlii.  16),  and  whose  residence  was  in  or  nigh  to 
the  land  of  the  "  Chaldeans,"  from  whose  chief 
city  Abraham's  father  migrated  (Job  i.  17  ;  Gen. 
xi.  31),  the  history  of  wine  as  used  by  religious 
men  in  the  earliest  patriarchal  times  is  illustrated. 
At  the  opening  of  the  history,  preceding  the 
poem  proper,  Job's  children,  sons  and  daughters, 
3 


50  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wifies. 

are  described  as  "  drinking  wine  "  at  their  birth 
day  feasts ;  while  Job,  watchful  and  anxious, 
fearing,  "after  their  feast-days,"  that  they  may 
have  "  sinned  "  by  indulgence,  calls  them  to  the 
sacrifices  then  offered  in  propitiation  (Job  i.  4,  5, 
13,  18).  The  "grape,"  the  products  of  "vine- 
yards, of  vintage,  and  of  the  wine-presses,"  are 
reckoned  among  Divine  gifts  (xv.  33  ;  xxiv.  6,  1 1, 
18)  ;  while  their  perversion  by  those  "drunken  " 
with  intoxicating  wine,  is  pictured  by  Job  as  a 
debasement  which  the  instinct  of  "  beasts  "  avoids ; 
the  beasts  being  more  wise  than  "  kings "  when 
wine  "  takes  away  the  heart  of  the  chief  of  the 
people"  (xii.  4,  7,  24,  25).  Most  important  of 
all,  in  this  record  of  an  age  among  the  earliest 
historically  described,  the  modes  of  preparing 
and  guarding  wines  in  their  ferment,  as  well  as 
the  import  of  Hebrew,  Greek,  and  Latin  terms, 
as  explanatory  of  each  other,  is  fixed  for  all  fu- 
ture history.  In  the  record  (xxxii.  19),  "  My 
belly  is  as  wine  which  has  no  vent ;  it  is  ready  to 
burst  like  new  bottles,"  the  Hebrew  for  "wine" 
is  yayifi,  the  Greek  of  the  Hebrew  translators 
IS  gleukos,  and  the  Latin  of  Jerome  is  mustum  ; 
thus  establishing  the  fact  that  the  Hebrew  j^^jj/z« 
is  a  generic  word,  including  unfermented  grape- 
juice  as  well  as  fermented  wine.  Again,  in  the 
statement  as  to  the  defrauder  (xx.  15),  that  he 
who  has   "swallowed  down   riches  shall  vomit 


Wines  Used  in  Chaldea  and  Egypt.       5 1 

them  up  again — God  shall  cast  them  up  again," 
as  we  shall  see,  the  word  yarash,  "  cast  up,"  from 
which  tirosh  is  derived,  gives  the  first  and  clear- 
est intimation  as  to  the  distinction  made  by  the 
Hebrews  between  two  kinds  of  wines — the  laxa- 
tive and  the  intoxicating.  In  fact,  in  all  impor- 
tant particulars,  these  plain  distinctions  made  in 
the  patriarchal  age  as  to  wines,  both  in  their  wit- 
nessed effects  and  in  the  study  of  preparations 
by  which  intoxication  may  be  prevented,  give 
the  key  to  solve  the  complicated  statements  of 
writers  on  Old  Testament  wines  in  all  subse- 
quent ages. 

WINES    IN    EARLY  CHALDEAN,  EGYPTIAN,  AND    IN- 
DIAN   USAGES    AND    LAWS 

Historians  of  all  modern  schools,  alike  the  ra- 
tionalist, Bunsen,  and  the  traditional  Wilkinson, 
agree  in  making  the  early  seat  of  Asiatic  civili 
zation  to  have  been  in  the  valley  of  the  Eu- 
phrates, and  thence  to  have  extended  to  the  val- 
leys of  the  Nile  on  the  west,  and  of  the  Indus 
on  the  east.  Before  the  days  of  Abraham,  as 
Chaldean  and  Egyptian  historians,  cited  alike 
by  the  Greek  Herodotus,  ihe  Roman  Diodorus 
and  Strabo,  and  the  Hebrew  Josephus  agree, 
literature  and  laws  had  reached  an  advanced 
stage  before  Moses,  the  founder  of  the  Jewish 
State,  was  "  learned  in  all  the  wisdom  of  the 


52  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines, 

Egyptians."  The  marriage  of  Joseph  to  the 
daughter  of  the  kohen  or  "  president "  of  the  Col* 
lege  of  On  (Gen.  xli.  45),  two  centuries  before 
Moses  lived,  shows  the  Egyptian  advance ;  the 
use  by  Moses,  and  by  subsequent  Hebrew  writers, 
of  more  than  one  hundred  words  —  more  than 
one-tenth  of  all  the  roots,  and  one-third  of  all 
those  expressive  of  spiritual  conceptions — com- 
mon to  the  Sanscrit  or  Chaldee,  confirms  the  in- 
timacy of  national  intercourse  then  existing; 
while  his  frequent  allusions  to  literary  works 
then  existing  (Num.  xxi.  14,  27;  Deut.  iv.  8), 
with  which  his  own  are  compared,  shows  that 
not  only  Moses,  but  the  Hebrew  people  at  large, 
were  familiar  with  Chaldean  and  Indian  letters 
through  an  Egyptian  culture.  The  usages  and 
laws  of  these  early  nations  as  to  wines  will  throw 
a  light,  therefore,  on  the  records  and  statutes  of 
Moses,  written  as  they  were  with  those  prece- 
dents before  him.  The  use  of  wine  among  the 
Chaldeans,  the  first  known  cultured  nation  of 
the  earth,  growing  up  at  the  earliest  seat  of  civil- 
ization on  the  Euphrates,  begins  with  the  records 
already  cited  from  the  book  of  Job ;  while  their 
advanced  culture  is  to  be  traced  in  later  Hebrew, 
Grecian,  and  Latin  historians.  Modern  explora- 
tions, begun  by  Layard,  reveal  the  existence 
of  implements  for  straining  wine.  Herodotus 
mentions  the  palm-tree  as  abounding  in  theii 


Apparently  Confiicthig  Testimonies,      53 

country,  and  the  use  of  palm  wine ;  and  Daniel 
refers  to  the  drinking  of  wine  at  the  feasts  of 
their  kings.  The  learned  class,  however,  ac- 
corded in  their  ideas  of  the  benefit  of  abstinence 
from  wine  with  their  Indian  and  Egyptian  asso- 
ciates. 

The  records  of  Greek  and  Roman  writers  as 
to  the  use  of  wine  in  Egypt  have  been  construed 
as  conflicting,  especially  by  German  writers ;  but 
the  calm  judgment  of  such  explorers  as  Wilkin- 
son, and  the  principles  we  have  above  considered, 
give  consistency  to  their  statements.  Herodotus 
states  (II.  'j']^  as  an  eye-witness,  that  in  "that 
part  of  Egypt  which  is  sown  with  wheat  .... 
they  use  wine  made  of  barley,  for  they  have  no 
wine."  The  savans  of  Napoleon  (Descrip.  de 
I'Egypt,  tom.  vi.,  p.  124),  who  found  the  walls  of 
monuments  in  Upper  Egypt  covered  with  rep- 
resentations of  the  culture  of  the  vine  and  the 
making  of  wines,  think  Herodotus  unreliable ; 
an  opinion  shared  by  Hengstenberg  (Egypt  and 
books  of  Moses  Introd.)  Careful  observers, 
however,  find  that  the  vine,  like  most  products, 
cannot  be  indigenous  to  a  soil  covered  three 
'months  in  the  year  by  the  inundation  of  the 
Nile;  that  in  Lowor  Eyypt  it  is  found  only  in 
gardens  shut  out  from  overflow ;  while  it  is  in 
Upper  Egypt,  five  hundred  miles  south,  that  the 
precipitous  river-banks  make  the  Upper  Nile 


54  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines, 

like  the  Upper  Rhine,  a  natural  wine  regioa 
Herodotus  mentions  (II.  133)  that  Mycerinus, 
the  builder  of  the  third  pyramid,  whom  Sir 
Gardner  Wilkinson  regards  as  having  reigned 
from  B.  c.  2,043  to  2,00 T,  nearly  a  centur}''  before 
Abraham's  visit,  gave  himself  up  to  luxury  in  the 
latter  part  of  his  reign  ;  and  Herodotus  uses  the 
expression  "  he  drank  and  enjoyed  himself, 
never  ceasing  day  and  night;"  the  implication 
being,  though  the  word  wine  is  not  used,  that 
he  drank  intoxicating  wine.  The  most  impor- 
tant and  harmonizing  statement  of  Herodotus  as 
to  wine  used  by  the  priests,  is  the  following  (II. 
2i7).  Having  said  that  "  they  are,  of  all  men,  the 
most  excessively  attentive  to  the  worship  of  the 
gods,"  in  a  minute  description  of  their  dress, 
food,  etc.,  he  says :  "  Wine  from  the  grape  is 
given  them."  This  mention  confirms  the  view 
already  taken  of  the  king's  wine  in  Joseph's  day ; 
it  illustrates  the  Greek  use  of  oinos  as  including 
must,  or  fresh  grape-juice ;  and  it  aids  in  har- 
monizing other  statements  as  to  wines  in  Egypt 
supposed  to  be  conflicting. 

Plutarch  (Osiris  and  Isis,,  sect.  6)  says :  "  As  to 
wine,  they  who  wait  upon  the  gods  in  Heliopolis* 

carry  none  at  all  into  the  temple Other 

priests  use  indeed  a  little  wine,  but  they  have 

wineless  purifications  (aoinous  hagneias) 

Even  the  kings  themselves,  being  of  the  order  of 


Wine  Forbidden  to  Priests  and  Kings.    55 

priests,  have  their  wine  given  to  them  according 
to  a  certain  measure  prescribed  in  the  sacred 
books,  as  Hecataeus  states.  They  began  to 
drink  [wine]  from  the  time  of  Psammiticus ;  pre- 
vious to  which  they  drank  no  wine  at  all ;  and 
if  they  made  use  of  it  in  their  libations  to  the 
gods,  it  was  not  because  they  looked  upon  it  as 
in  its  own  nature  acceptable,  but  as  the  blood 
of  those  enemies  who  formerly  fought  against 

them These    things  are   related  by   Eu- 

doxus  in  the  second  book  of  the  Phainomena,  as 
he  had  them  from  the  priests  themselves."  As 
Hecat3eus,from  whose  history  Herodotus  quoted, 
though  his  work  is  now  lost,  lived  b.  c.  550,  and 
as  Eudoxus,  whose  studies  of  astronomy  in  Egypt 
are  also  lost,  lived  b.  c.  360,  while  Psammiticus, 
the  king  referred  to,  reigned  from  b.  c.  664  to  610, 
Plutarch  had  certainly  reason  to  rely  upon  their 
statements.  At  any  rate,  any  apparent  discrep- 
ancy does  not  at  all  affect  the  truth  here  revealed, 
or  the  moral  impression  it  must  make  on  any 
sincere  mind.  There  certainly  was  a  deep  con- 
viction on  the  minds  of  Egyptian  kings,  as  well 
as  priests,  that  intoxicating  wines  were  injurious 
io  the  physical  and  moral  nature  of  men  account- 
able to  God  as  civil  and  religious  leaders ;  and 
that  intoxicating  wines,  man's  invention  and 
curse,  were  not  accepted  by  the  Divine  Being  as 
one  of  His  gifts. 


56  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines, 

It  may  be  added,  in  general,  that  Pliny  and 
many  later  writers  allude  to  various  kinds  of 
Egyptian  wines.  Athenseus  (Deipn.  I.  25)  men- 
tions especially  "  sweet,  light,  and  boiled  "  Egyp- 
tian wines ;  and  states,  that  the  Egyptians,  like 
the  Greeks,  in  worshiping  the  sun,  the  deification 
of  pure  light,  "make  their  libations  of  honey 
Cgrape-syrup),  as  they  never  bring  wines  to  the 
altars  of  the  gods."  Philo  the  Jew  and  Clem- 
ent the  Christian  indicate  the  religious  spirit  of 
the  Egyptians,  in  describing  the  abstinence  of 
the  specially  devout  of  their  respective  religions. 
Porphyry,  about  the  same  age,  quotes  from  a 
lost  work  of  Chaeremon,  librarian  at  a  sacred 
college  in  Egypt  under  the  Csesars,  this  historic 
record :  "  Some  do  not  drink  wine  at  all,  and 
others  drink  very  little  of  it,  on  account  of  its 
being  injurious  to  the  nerves,  oppressive  to  the 
head,  an  impediment  to  invention,  and  an  incen- 
tive to  lust." 

In  modern  explorations,  Champollion  notes, 
as  at  Beni-Hassan,  the  ancient  representations 
of  the  preparations  of  wines,  including  "  boiled 
wine;"  noting  two  kinds  of  presses,  especially 
"  that  of  forcing  by  mere  strength  of  the  arms  " 
the  strained  juice  through  a  cloth.  Sir  Gardner 
Wilkinson,  in  explaining  his  own  copy  of  a 
drawmg  of  this  mode  of  pressing  and  straining 
grape-juice  by  the   hand,   says:  "This   Roman 


Strained  Grape  -yuice  in  Egypt.         57 

torcular  or  twist  press  was  used  in  all  parts  of 
the  country."  These  representations,  which  every 
traveler  in  Egypt  may  observe,  indicate  that  the 
record  of  Moses  as  to  the  butler's  pressing  the 
grape-juice  into  Pharaoh's  cup,  was  a  reality.  Its 
design,  to  furnish  a  fresh,  unintoxicating  bever- 
age, is  verified  by  Egyptian,  and  still  more  by 
contemporary  and  associated  Brahminic  records. 

In  the  "  Hieratic  Papyri,"  or  records  of  Egyp- 
tian priests,  found  on  paper  made  from  the  stem 
of  the  water-lily  (Anasti,  No.  IV.,  Let.  xi.),  is 
this  record  of  the  address  of  an  Egyptian  priest 
to  a  pupil  who  had  become  addicted  to  the  use 
of  the  beer  of  Lower  and  the  wine  of  Upper 
Egypt :  "  Thou  knowest  that  wine  is  an  abomi- 
nation. Thou  hast  taken  an  oath  as  to  strong 
drink,  that  thou  wouldst  not  take  such  into  thee. 
Hast  thou  forgotten  thine  oath  ? "  This  certainly 
indicates  that  aspiring,  cultured  young  men  were 
bound  to  abstinence  from  wine  in  the  land  where 
Joseph  and  Moses  learned  ancient  science. 

The  laws  of  the  Brahmins  of  India,  embodied 
in  the  twelve  chapters  of  the  Institutes  of  Menu, 
indicate  that  modern  reform  is  behind  the  an- 
cients, who,  in  the  earliest  ages,  had  embodied  in 
law  the  duty  of  abstaining  from  intoxicating  liq- 
uors. The  opening  chapter  declares  that  "im- 
memorial custom  is  transcendent  law"  (I.  108)  ; 
intimating  that   the  embodied  precepts  of  the 


58  The  Divi7te  Law  as  to  Wines. 

code  following  are  not  arbitrary  enactments,  but 
the  suggestions  of  human  experience,  always  rec- 
ognized as  binding.  The  two  succeeding  chap- 
ters treat  of  the  •"  education,"  or  the  youth  of 
the  "  twice-born,"  or  divinely-endowed  caste,  the 
Brahmins,  and  of  "  marriage,"  or  their  manhood  ; 
in  which  precepts  as  to  abstinence  from  alcoholic 
drinks  are  prominent.  Among  persons  to  be 
shunned  in  society  is  "  a  drinker  of  intoxicating 
spirits  "  (III.  159).  Repeated  Hsts  of  articles  of 
food  which  may  be  presented  as  oblations  to  the 
Deity,  and  which  the  Brahmin  may  receive  and 
eat,  such  as  milk,  clarified  butter  and  honey,  are 
given ;  but  no  "  spirituous  liquor "  is  admitted 
In  the  precepts  for  the  "  military  class,"  or  sec- 
ond caste,  among  whom  kings  are  ranked,  ab- 
stemiousness rather  than  entire  abstinence  is  en- 
joined. Among  the  "  tenfold  set  of  vices  produced 
by  love  of  pleasure,"  lechery,  "  intoxication  "  and 
"  dancing  "  are  associated ;  and  it  is  declared  that 
"  a  king  addicted  to  vices  "  like  these,  "  must  lose 
both  his  wealth  and  his  virtue  ....  and  even 
his  life  "  (VII.  46,  47)  In  the  selection  of  "  the 
four  most  pernicious  of  the  set,"  that  of  "  drink- 
ing "  is  placed  first  (VII.  50).  In  the  two  final 
chapters,  containing  laws  of  religion  as  distinct 
from  morality,  and  entitled  "  Penance  and  Ex- 
piation," and  "  Transmigration  and  Final  Beati- 
tude," the  principles  of  these  Brahminic  laws  are 


Wine  Forbidden  to  Brahinins.  59 

thus  developed.  "  Inebriating  liquor  "  is  "  of  three 
sorts:"  that  "extracted  from  sugar,  that  from 
rice,  and  that  from  the  flowers  of  Madhuca.  As 
one,  so  are  all ;  they  shall  not  be  tasted  by  the 
chief  of  the  twice-born"  (XI.  95).  The  penance  re- 
quired varies  according  to  the  knowledge  or  ig- 
norance of  the  drinker.  "  Any  twice-born  man 
who  has  intentionally  drunk  spirit  of  rice  may 
drink  more  of  the  same  spirit  when  set  on  fire, 
and  atone  for  his  offense  by  severely  burning 
his  body ;  or  he  may  drink  boiHng,  until  he  die, 
the  urine  of  a  cow,"  etc.  (XI.  91).  While  the 
penalty  of  intentional  drinking  is  so  fearful  as 
well  as  disgusting,  it  is  added,  "  Or,  if  he  tasted 
it  unknowingly,  he  may  expiate  the  sin  of  drink- 
ing spirituous  liquor  by  " — a  long  list  of  humil- 
iating penances  lasting  "  a  whole  year"  (XI.  92). 
Farther  on,  v/earisome  penances  are  prescribed 
for  a  Brahmin  who  shall  "  even  smell  the  breath 
of  a  man  who  has  been  drinking  spirits"  (XI. 
150)  ;  or  shall  "have  tasted  unknowingly  .  .  .  . 
anything  that  has  touched  spirituous  liquors" 
(XI.  151).  Proceeding  then  to  the  penalties  to 
be  followed  in  the  future  world,  we  read  (XII. 
56)  :  "  A  priest  who  has  drunk  spirituous  liquor 
shall  migrate  into  the  form  of  a  smaller  or  larger 
worm  or  insect,  of  a  moth,  of  a  fly  feeding  on 
ordure,  or  of  some  ravenous  animal." 

It  is  impossible  that  any  thoughtful  student 


6o  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

of  this  early  code,  who  recalls  that  these  laws 
were  founded  on  "  customs "  that  were  "  imme- 
morial," and  who,  moreover,  remembers  that  the 
men  who  sought  to  be  rulers  by  mental  and 
moral  superiority  were  a  fraternity  accomplish- 
ing their  aim  alike  in  ancient  Chaldea,  Egypt, 
and  India — it  is  impossible  that  any  sincere  stu- 
dent of  this  age  should  regard  those  like  convic- 
tions which  are  assuming  shape  and  authority  in 
modern  days  as  unfounded  in  nature  or  the  sug- 
tion  of  mere  asceticism.  That  they  reached  the 
common  people  of  India,  and  that  even  where 
this  Code  of  Menu  was  unknown,  is  attested  by 
Strabo ;  who  himself -wrote  about  B.C.  lo,  and 
quotes  from  Megasthenes  facts  witnessed  three 
centuries  earlier,  thus  indicating  the  existence  of 
a  permanent  "  custom."     Strabo  says  (B.  xv.  c.  i. 

sect.  53):  "All   the    Indians   are   frugal 

They  never  drink  wine  but  at  sacrifices.  Their 
beverage  is  made  from  rice  instead  of  barley." 
Hence,  both  Megasthenes  and  Strabo  note  a 
natural  sequence :  "  They  observe  good  order  .... 
they  are  happy  on  account  of  their  frugal  life ; " 
they  have  "  few  lawsuits ; "  they  "  confide  in  one 
another;"  "their  houses  and  property  are  un- 
guarded." Megasthenes  thought  all  this  "  worthy 
of  imitation  in  a  people  who  have  no  wntten 
laws  and  who  are  ignorant  of  writing;"  and 
Strabo  adds,  as  the  chief  source  of  their  virtue. 


Wines  in  Moses  Laws,  6i 

"  These  things  indicate  temperance  and  sobriety." 
The  allusion  to  wine  at  sacrifices  deserves  special 
consideration. 

WINES    AMONG   THE    HEBREWS    AT    THE    GIVING 
OF    MOSES'    LAWS. 

The  points  to  be  noted  in  this  survey  are 
mainly  three ;  while  two  previous  considerations 
must  be  recalled  in  order  to  their  full  understand- 
ing. The  Hebrew  words  for  wine  used  by 
Moses,  the  existence  of  an  association  pledged 
before  his  day  to  total  abstinence,  and  the  special 
laws  of  health  and  religion  relating  to  wine 
framed  by  him,  are  successively  to  be  considered  ; 
and  each  of  these  points  of  consideration  must 
keep  in  view  the  fact  that  Moses  writes  him- 
self the  history  of  the  Patriarchs  as  to  wines  ; 
and  that,  educated  in  all  the  wisdom  of  the 
Egyptians,  and  using  numerous  words  that  be- 
longed to  the  school  of  the  Brahmins,  he  calls 
the  Hebrew  people  to  note  the  superiority  of 
his  "  statutes  "  tr»  those  of  the  several  advanced 
"  nations  "  of  his  day  (Deut.  iv.  6-8). 

THE     VINE    AND    ITS     PRODUCTS    AMONG    THE 
HEBREWS. 

In  the  Hebrew  of  the  Old  Testament  the 
words  for  vine,  for  grapes,  and  also  twelve  terms 


62  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines, 

expressive  of  products  of  the  grape,  are  to  be 
noted.  Of  these  twelve  terms,  four  are  familiar 
in  the  Patriarchal  history ;  four  more  are  prod- 
ucts known  in  the  early  Hebrew  of  Moses'  writ- 
ings; two  more  are  found  in  Medieval  Hebrew, 
or  that  of  Solomon  and  the  early  prophets,  and 
yet  two  more  appear  only  in  the  later  prophets. 
All  these  terms,  excepting  the  last  four,  must  be 
considered  as  connected  with  Moses'  writings. 

The  Hebrew  for  vine  is  gephen.  The  vine 
is  found  in  Egypt  in  Joseph's  day  (Gen.  xl.  9, 
10)  ;  but  Jacob  recalls  its  greater  plentifulness  in 
Palestine,  especially  at  his  own  and  his  grand- 
father's favorite  residence  nigh  Hebron,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Valley  of  Eshcol,  when  in  his  pro- 
phecies as  to  Judah,  to  whom  that  section  of  Pal- 
estine was  to  be  an  inheritance,  he  declares : 
"  Binding  his  foal  unto  the  vine,  and  his  ass-colt 
unto  the  choice  vine,  he  shall  wash  his  garments 
in  wine  and  his  clothes  in  the  blood  of  grapes." 
That  the  entrance  of  the  family  of  Jacob  into 
Egypt  brought  increased  propagation  of  the 
grape  into  Upper  Egypt,  is  indicated  by  the  fact 
that  at  Beni- Hassan,  on  the  east  bank  of  the 
Nile,  and  at  a  point  most  favorable  for  grape- 
culture,  are  found  those  full  representations  on 
tomb-walls  of  grape-culture  which  have  excited 
the  wonder  of  all  travelers ;  in  which  the  vines 
are  so  abundant  that  goats  and  other  animals  are 


Hebrew  Term,  *^  Blood  of  Graces.'''*       62, 

free  to  browse  on  them ;  and  which  are  accom- 
panied by  the  representation  of  a  train  entering 
Egypt,  which  Wilkinson  and  others  legard  the 
monumental  record  made  by  Joseph  of  the  set- 
tlement of  his  father  and  brethren  in  the  land. 
The  special  attraction  of  the  land  of  Canaan, 
from  first  to  last,  is  intimated  in  the  early  pro- 
vision of  "  wheat,  barley,  vines,"  and  other  fruits 
(Deut.  viii.  8),  and  in  the  permanent  promise 
that  every  man  should  both  "sit  under"  and 
"eat  of  his  own  vine"  (i  Kings  iv.  25  ;  2  Kings 
xviii.  31). 

The  Hebrew  word  for  "  grape,"  the  product 
of  the  vine,  is  anab.  Its  mention  is  found  as 
early  and  as  extensively  as  is  that  of  the  vine 
It  is  especially  intimated,  that  while  the  puie 
juice  of  the  grape  was  early  employed  as  a  bev- 
erage (Gen.  xl.  10,  11),  its  most  natural  was  its 
simplest  use,  that  of  "  eating  grapes  to  the  fill " 
(Deut.  xxiii.  24). 

The  first  and  simplest  artificial  product  is  that 
called  the  "  blood  "  and  "  the  pure  blood  of  the 
grapes."  As  already  noticed,  the  narrative  of 
Moses  and  the  mode  of  pressing  the  grapes  seen 
on  the  oldest  monuments  of  Egypt  compels  the 
view  that  the  early  Egyptian  kings  drank  the 
pure  expressed  juice  of  the  grape  (Gen.  xl.  11). 
What  Joseph  recognized  in  the  butler's  vision 
his  aged  father  certainly  prophesied  of:  that  "  the 


64  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

blood  of  grapes"  should  be  the  beverage  of  Judah 
(Gen.  xlix.  1 1).  Moses,  again,  evidently  referred 
to  his  own  training,  so  like  to  that  of  the  Pa- 
triarch Jacob,  when  he  wrote,  "  Remember  the 
days  of  old.  Ask  thy  father  and  he  will  show 
thee ;  thy  elders,  and  they  will  tell  thee  .... 
thou  didst  drink  the  pure  blood  of  the  grape " 
(Deut.  xxxii.  7,  14). 

The  second  product  of  the  grape,  and  next  in 
purity,  is  doubtless  the  debsk.  When,  by  English 
and  other  translators  of  the  Reformation  period, 
this  word  was  rendered,  according  to  the  best 
lights  of  their  day,  "  honey,"  the  East  was  shut 
up  to  Christian  scholars.  It  was  a  striking 
ordering  of  Providence  that  just  before  the  ex- 
pedition of  Napoleon  into  Egypt,  about  a.d. 
1800,  which  led  on  to  the  opening  of  the  Bible 
lands  to  Christian  exploration,  a  leader  among 
German  rationalists,  replied  to  by  Hengstenberg, 
maintained  that  the  writer  of  the  Book  of  Gene- 
sis could  have  known  nothing  of  Egypt,  or  he 
would  not  have  suggested  that  Jacob  sent  down 
a  present  of  "  honey  "  to  Pharaoh  (Gen.  xliii.  11). 
The  modern  traveler  finds  everywhere  in  the  an- 
cient land  of  Jacob's  inheritance  that  the  juice  of 
the  sweet  grape  is  boiled  down  to  a  syrup,  still 
called  by  the  old  name  dihs^  whose  spicy  and 
nectar-like  sweetness  makes  i  one  of  the  most 
delicious  of  condiments ;  while  at  the  very  loca- 


Hebrew  Products  of  the  Grape.  65 

don  whence  Jacob  sent  it  to  Pharaoh,  at  Heb- 
ron, it  is  prepared  in  great  quantities  and  sent 
to  Egypt  as  an  article  of  trade. 

It  is  this  syrup  with  which  it  is  repeatedly  de- 
clared by  Moses  the  land  of  promise  "  flowed  " 
(Ex.  iii.  8),  etc. ;  and  though  the  honey  of  bees, 
gathered  mainly  from  the  grapes,  is,  when  flow- 
ing from  the  comb,  called  by  the  same  name,  be- 
cause it  is  substantially  the  same  article  (as  Jud. 
xiv.  8,  I  Sam.  xiv.  25-29),  yet  the  debsh  of 
Moses  is  almost  always  the  product  of  the  grape 
prepared  by  boiling.  In  only  three  cases,  out  of 
nearly  fifty,  does  the  word  refer  to  the  product 
prepared  by  bees  rather  than  by  man. 

The  third  product  of  the  grape,  prepared  by 
man,  in  the  order  of  simplicity,  is  probably 
tirosh ;  which,  as  the  more  important  word  to 
be  examined,  is  reserved  for  a  separate  consid- 
eration. 

The  fourth  product  in  order  of  preparation 
seems  to  be  the  chemeVy  or  effervescing  wine, 
prepared,  doubtless,  as  are  modern  bottled  wines^ 
by  checking  the  fermentation  at  an  early  stage. 
The  name  is  derived  from  the  verb  ckamar,  to 
foam  or  be  agitated ;  as  is  seen  in  Job  xvi.  16  ; 
Lam.  i.  20  and  ii.  11;  Ps.  xlvi.  3. 

In  Ps.  Ixxv.  8  this  meaning  is  specially  illus- 
trated by  the  connection  "  yayin  chamar ; "  in 
the  Greek  translation,  "  oinos  akratos ;  "  in  the 


66  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines, 

English,  "  the  wine  is  red."  The  added  phrase,  it 
is  full  "of  mixture,"  in  the  Greek  " kerasmatos,'' 
indicates  the  contrast  between  the  fresh,  efferves- 
cing, light  wine  before  admixture,  and  its  inflam- 
ing character  after  the  admixture ;  a  contrast 
which,  in  the  Greek,  is  made  clearer  by  the  nega- 
tive "akratos,"  and  the  positive  "  kerasmatos." 
The  effervescing  wines,  as  we  have  observed,  are 
obtained  by  arresting  the  alcoholic  ferment  in 
its  earliest  stages.  Hence  the  chemer  was  mani- 
festly a  light  wine.  In  the  earlier  Chaldaic  or 
original  Hebrew  the  noun  is  only  twice  found; 
rendered  "  pure  "  before  the  expression  "  blood 
of  the  grapes,"  in  Deut.  xxxii.  14,  and  trans- 
lated "  red  "  in  Isaiah  xxvii.  2  ;  though  "  effer- 
vescing "  is  doubtless  the  more  appropriate  desig- 
nation. It  is  found  again  six  times  in  the  Chaldaic 
Hebrew  of  Ezra,  vi.  9,  vii.  22,  and  of  Daniel  v. 
I,  2, 4,  23,  indicating  that  it  was  common  among 
the  Babylonians. 

The  fifth  product  of  the  grape  among  the  He- 
brews, was  that  called  by  the  generic  name 
yayin ;  a  word  corresponding  to  the  generic 
word  "  wine  "  found  in  all  languages.  Its  special 
meaning,  like  that  of  "  tirosh,"  requires  separate 
consideration. 

The  sixth  product  of  the  grape  appears  to  be 
sobe,  the  Roman  sapa,  the  French  vin-cuit ;  01 
wine  diluted  with  water  and  then  boiled,  thus 


Hebrew  Products  of  the  Grape.  6^ 

driving  oflf  in  part  the  alcoholic  and  concentrat 
ing  the  nutritive  qualities.  The  verb  saba,  mean- 
ing to  quaff,  or  drink  luxuriously,  is  used  to  in 
dicate  guzzling  drinkers,  who  are  made  heavy 
and  stupid,  rather  than  excited,  by  its  use.  All 
the  connections  in  which  the  verb  is  found,  as 
Deut.  xxi.  20;  Prov.  xxiii.  20,  21  ;  Isa.  Ivi.  12  ; 
and  Nah.  i.  10,  as  well  as  the  uses  of  the  noun, 
Isa.  i.  22;  Hos.  iv.  18;  and  Nah.  i.  10,  are 
in  harmony  with  this  view  of  the  nature  of 
sobe. 

The  seventh  product  of  the  grape  in  the  order 
of  manufacture  is  chomets,  or  vinegar.  This  is,  of 
course,  the  result  of  the  second,  or  acetous  fer- 
mentation. It  is  derived  from  the  verb  "  cha- 
mets,"  to  be  sharp.  The  verb  usually,  and  its  first 
derivative  noun, "  chamets,"  always  refer  to  leaven, 
used  for  raising  bread.  Unlike  seor^  meaning 
also  leaven,  which  is  used  but  five  times,  and 
only  by  Moses,  and  seems  to  be  a  word  familiar 
to  the  Hebrews  in  Egypt,  chamets,  which  is 
used  by  Isaiah  (Ixiii.  i),  Hosea  (vii.  4),  and 
Amos  (iv.  5),  seems  to  be  a  word,  and  an  article, 
belonging  to  the  land  of  the  vine.  It  is  prob- 
ably a  leaven  made  from  sour  wine  ;  as  distinct 
from  leaven  made  from  other  sources.  This  is 
indicated  by  Isaiah  Ixiii.  i ;  in  which  passage  it 
is  rendered  "  dyed,"  with  manifest  reference  to 
red  grape-juice,  turned  sour  by  exposure.     This 


68  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

is  made  more  manifest  from  the  fact  that  the 
second  derivative,  c hornets,  is  the  only  word  used 
to  designate  vinegar  ;  its  mention  being  found  in 
Num.  vi.  3  ;  Ruth  ii.  14;  Ps.  Ixix  21 ;  Prov.  x. 
26,  XXV.  20 ;  in  all  which  cases  the  connection 
shows  that  the  vinegar  is  sour  wine. 

The  first  of  these  six  products  has  an  interest  in 
connection  with  the  Nazarite's  abstinence,  and 
the  second  with  the  food  of  the  common  peo- 
ple ;  while  the  seventh  is  the  beverage  refused  by 
Christ  on  the  cross. 

The  eighth  product  connected  with,  if  not  al- 
ways derived  from  the  grape,  was  shekar,  ren- 
dered in  the  English  translation  "  strong  drink,'' 
probably  including  concentrated  and  drugged 
liquors.  The  verb,  used  in  every  age  of  Hebrew 
literature,  from  Gen.  ix.  21  to  Hag.  i.  6,  means 
to  be  inebriated  or  "  drunken  ; "  the  "  earth,"  Jer, 
li.  7,  and  God's  " arrows"  (Deut.  xxxii.  42)  being 
poetically  characterized  as  stupefied  by  strong 
drink.  The  noun,  used  nearly  twenty-five  times, 
is,  in  the  law  and  history,  contrasted  with  yayin, 
or  wine  (Lev.  x.  9 ;  Jud.  xiii.  4)  ;  but  in  the 
poetical  books,  from  Solomon  to  Micah,  it  is 
used  separately,  and  seems  a  synonym  for 
highly-intoxicating  stimulants  (Prov.  xxxi.  6; 
Isah.  V.  22) ;  or  more  generally  for  intoxication 
itself  (Prov.  xx.  i  ;  Isa.  xxviii.  7).  The  Greek 
translators  seem  to  have  introduced   the   term 


Hebrew  Products  of  the  Grape,  69 

sikera  as  a  transfer,  rather  than  a  translation,  of 
shekar ;  since  "sikera"  is  not  found  in  classic 
Greek,  and  appears  once  only  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment (Luke  i.  15).  Jerome,  translating  "she- 
kar" into  Latin,  at  points  in  the  law  and  early 
history  where  it  is  contrasted  with  wine,  para- 
phrases it  thus :  "  Omne  quod  inebriare  potest," 
all  which  can  intoxicate  (Lev.  x.  9  ;  Num.  vi.  3  ; 
I  Sam.  i.  15)  ;  in  the  later  history  he  transfers, 
rather  than  translates,  rendering  it  sicera  (Deut. 
xiv.  26 ;  Jud.  xiii.  4,  etc.)  ;  in  the  poetry  he  usu- 
ally employs  the  abstract  "  ebrietas,"  intoxica- 
tion ;  while  in  the  second  clause  of  Num.  vi.  3, 
he  renders  chomets  shekar,  or  "  vinegar  from 
strong  drink,"  by  "  acetum  ex  vino,"  vinegar 
from 'wine.  Jerome  explains  his  own  transla- 
tion in  one  of  his  letters  (ad  Nepot.  Opp.) 
thus :  "  'Sicera,  in  the  Hebrew  language  is  any 
drink  which  can  inebriate  (inebriare  potest) ; 
either  that  which  is  prepared  from  grain  or  the 
juice  of  apples ;  or  when  honey-comb  (favus)  is 
boiled  into  a  sweet  and  barbarian  drink  ;  or 
when  the  fruit  of  palm-trees  is  pressed  out  into 
a  liquor,  and  when  water  is  made  thick  and  col- 
ored with  boiled  fruits*  Herodotus  (ii.  'j']\ 
Diodorous  (i.  20,  31),  anJ  Pliny  (Hist  Nat. 
xiv.  19)  speak  of  liquors  thus  made  among  the 
ancient  Asiatic  nations,  especially  in  Palestine. 
Plutarch    (Isid.   vi.),    Clement    of    Alexandria 


70  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

(Strom,  iii.),  and  Jamblicus  (vit.  Pythag.  ep.  xvi, 
24),  state  that  the  Egyptian  priests,  Asiatic 
magi,  and  ancient  Pythagoreans  abstained  from 
all  drinks  of  this  class. 


TIROSH,    OR    HEBREW    UNFERMENTED    WINE. 

Modern  investigations  lead  to  the  conclusion 
that  tirosh  was  mtist,  or  unfermented  wine.  This 
will  appear — for  the  testimonies  to'  this  effect  are 
numerous,  and  their  study  most  instructive — by 
the  tracing  of  its  Hebrew  origin,  of  the  cognate 
Arabic,  of  the  Greek  translation  made  about 
B.C.  300,  of  the  Talmud  comments,  of  the  Latin 
version  of  Jerome  prepared  about  a.d,  400,  and 
of  several  later  versions. 

The  review  of  these  authorities  as  cited,  or 
overlooked,  by  modern  German  lexicographers, 
is  a  most  striking  example  of  the  controlling  in- 
fluence, first,  of  national  customs ;  second,  of 
philological,  as  distinct  from  personal,  investiga- 
tion ;  and  third,  of  the  progress  of  modern  inves- 
tigations in  natural  history. 

The  word  tirosh,  as  all  agree,  is  derived  from 
the  verb  yarash.  The  primary  meaning  is  to 
*  seize,"  or  "  dispossess ; "  whence,  as  that  which  is 
seized  is  held  by  the  s€\zqx,  yarash  signifies  to 
'  possess."  Gesenius,  with  rare  power  of  philo- 
logical  analysis,  thinks  there  is  but  one  root  • 


"Tirosh"   Unfermented  Wine.  yi 

these  two  meanings  being  necessarily  associated. 
Fuerst,  with  less  acumen,  yet  with  a  wider  range 
of  modern  research,  thinks  that  there  are  two 
roots,  though  of  precisely  the  same  form.  To 
illustrate  the  meaning  of  the  first  root,  which 
signifies  "  to  drive  out,"  or  dispossess,  and  in  the 
passive,  or  niphal,  to  "be  robbed,"  and  so  to 
"  become  poor,"  he  notes  that  it  is  "  identical 
with  (the  Hebrew)  rdsk  (rush),  which  means, 
in  its  fundamental  sense,  the  same  as  (the  Ara- 
bic) rask,  to  snatch  away."  To  the  English 
reader  the  derivation  of  "  ya-rash  "  from  "  rash  " 
is  illustrated  in  such  words  as  "  be-get "  and  "  be- 
guile," whose  roots  are  "  get "  and  "  guile." 

The  noun  "  tirosh,"  as  its  form  shows,  is  from 
the  hiphil  or  causative  conjugation ;  meaning 
therefore,  an  article  which  causes  either  posses- 
sion or  dispossession. 

Three  facts  as  to  the  meaning  of  the  verb 
"  yarash  "  are  to  be  noted  : 

Fij'st. — In  every  case  of  its  use  in  the  hiphil 
or  causative  construction — there  are  nearly  sev- 
enty instances — it  invariably  means  to  "  drive  " 
or  "  cast  out,"  i.  e.^  to  dispossess. 

Second, — In  all  the  records,  from  Moses'  day 
dovm,  the  word  "  yarash,"  used  about  two  hun- 
dred times,  is  material,  not  moral,  in  its  applica- 
tion ;  referring,  generally,  to  dispossession  by  the 
sword  {e.  g.  Ex.  xxiv.  24). 


72  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

Third. — In  the  primitive  language  of  Job 
(xx.  15)  only  its  action  is  internal.  The  mani- 
fest meaning  of  yarash,  in  this  only  case  where 
it  is  applied  to  an  operation  on  the  human  sys- 
tem, is  in  perfect  harmony  with  the  root-mean- 
ing of  the  word  seen  in  the  cognate  Arabic.  It 
is  an  effect  produced  on  the  body,  not  on  the 
mind ;  and  it  is  the  laxative  influence  ascribed 
to  unfermented  wines  by  the  Greek  and  Roman 
writers.  This  early  and  only  usage,  therefore, 
shows  that  the  patriarchs,  familiar,  from  Abra- 
ham's experience  certainly,  with  Chaldean  and 
Egyptian  discoveries  as  to  wines,  had  selected 
intelligently  the  word  tirosh  to  designate  un- 
fermented wine. 

The  idea  of  "  purging  "  as  the  effect  of  tiroshy 
to  which  its  derivation,  thus  attested  by  Job  xx, 
15,  shuts  up  the  Hebrew  scholar,  is  confirmed 
by  the  meaning  of  the  Arabic  rash,  rush,  as 
given  by  Freytag;  namely  (i),  multum  edit,  he 
eats  much  ;  (2),  debilitavit,  it  has  debilitated 
him.  Coming  to  the  noun  itself,  tirosh,  Gese- 
nius  defines  it,  "  must,  new  wine^  Fuerst  more 
fully  renders  the  word,  and  illustrates  its  mean- 
ing thus  :  "  Properly,  what  is  got  (yarash)  from 
grapes.  Gen.  xxvii.  28,  37,  etc.;  hence,  U7tfer- 
mented  wine,  Mic.  vi.  15  ;  different  from  yayin, 
Hos.  iv.  II  ;  sweet  mead,  Zech.  ix.  17  ;  diud  juice 
of  the  gr^pe,  Isa,  Ixv.  8  : "  and  he  adds,  "  Com- 


Reconciling  of  Lexicographers.  7  3 

pare  Syriac  meritho,  the  same  word  from  the 
same  stem."  Gesenius  hints  that  tirosh  is  de- 
rived from  yarask,  "  because  it  gets  possession 
of  the  brain — inebriates  ;  "  while  Fuerst  suggests, 
as  noted  above,  a  very  different  idea. 

As  illustrative  of  the  influences  which  might 
have  led  Gesenius  to  such  a  conception  of 
"  tirosh,"  the  differing  statements  of  Gesenius 
and  Fuerst  as  to  the  Hebrew  word  chemeh  de- 
serve notice.  The  noun  "  chemeh "  is  found 
eight  times ;  its  root-verb  once  (Job  xxix.  6). 
In  the  English  translation  it  is  rendered  always 
"  butter."  Gesenius  renders  it :  "  curdled  milk. 
Gen.  xviii.  8;  Judg.  v.  25;  compare  Jos.  Ant. 
V  ;  5  ;  4  gala  diephihoros  ede,  milk  in  this  state 
having  an  inebriating  power,  Isah.  vii.  22  ;  2 
Sam.  xvii.  29.  Poetical  also  for  milk.  Job  xx. 
17;  Isa.  vii.  15;  Deut.  xxxii.  14."  Here  several 
difficulties  arise.  Curdled  milk  is  not  intoxicat- 
ing. The  word  diepkthoros,  used  by  Josephus, 
not  found  in  classic  Greek,  is  explained  by  Jose- 
phus himself  as  soporific  rather  than  inebriating, 
in  the  added  clause :  "  of  which  he  (Sisera) 
drank  so  immoderately  that  he  soon  fell  asleep." 
Again,  it  seems  unnatural  that  "  curdled  milk," 
and  that  "  inebriating,"  should  be  given  by  a 
careful  nurse  to  a  chila  (Isa.  vii.  22);  yet  more, 
that  the  "  sweet  milk "  (always  indicated  else- 
where, in  Hebrew  and  in  Arabic,  by  chaleb),  of 
4 


74  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

Isa.  vii.  15,  is  converted  into  "curdled  milk" 
in  Isa.  vii.  22.  That  such  a  series  of  false  con- 
ceptions should  enter  the  mind  of  so  able  a 
scholar  as  Gesenius,  is  naturally  explained  by 
the  utter  ignorance  of  common  matters  of  life, 
which  the  bachelor-scholar,  Neander,  watched 
over  by  his  devoted  sister,  displayed  in  his  own 
affairs.  Fuerst,  in  a  happier  analysis,  finds  the 
natural  product  of  "  milk-cream  "  in  Gen.  xviii. 
8,  and  Isa.  vii.  22;  "milk  with  its  cream,"  in 
Judg.  iv.  19  and  v.  25  ;  and  "butter,"  the  artifi- 
cial product,  in  Pro  v.  xxx.  ^iZ-  The  student 
must  have  a  dull  mind  who  does  not  see  how 
the  ignorance,  alike  of  the  customs  of  other 
times  and  of  the  common  matters  of  his  own 
household,  utterly  unfitted  the  able  Hebrew 
scholar  to  judge  of  the  effects  alike  of  the  He- 
brew chemeh  and  tirosh.  It  is  sufficient  here  to 
add,  that  while  the  Greek  interpreters  of  b.  c.  300 
used  the  word  oi7tos  in  a  generic  sense,  including 
unfermented  tirosh,  as  well  as  fermented  yayin, 
in  special  cases  they  indicate  its  distinctive  char- 
acter. They  declare  the  specific  meaning  of  the 
word  tirosh  by  rendering  it,  in  Isa,  Ixv.  8,  rox, 
or  "  burst  fruit" ;  indicating  that  the  grapes  have 
their  skins  burst  by  the  pressure  of  the  now 
flowing  juice. 

It  is  proper  here  to  insert  the  testimony  of 
Hebrew  lexicographers  who  preceded  the  pres- 


I 


Early  Definition  of  "  Tirosk."  75 

ent  authorities,  Gesenius  and  Fuerst ;  the  former 
of  whom  is  more  reliable  in  words  relating  to 
spiritual  truth,  while  the  latter  had  the  advantage 
of  superior  resources  in  studying  material  things 
alluded  to  in  the  Hebrew  history.  Here  it  is 
important  to  recall  the  fact  that  Hebrew  lexicog- 
raphers derived  their  knowledge  from  the  multi- 
tudinous sources  of  information  above  referred 
to,  as  they  met  them  in  their  day.  As  the  lexi- 
cographers to  be  cited  were  contemporary  with 
the  modern  translators  of  the  Old  Testament, 
hereafter  to  be  cited,  it  is  important  to  note  that 
both  in  the  derivation  and  in  the  cited  significa- 
tions of  "  tirosh  "  as  contrasted  with  "  yayin," 
these  lexicographers  are  in  accord  with  the  con- 
scientious translators  of  their  day. 

In  the  Lexicon  of  Pagninus  Lucensis,  pub- 
lished at  Lyons,  France,  in  1575,  "tirosh"  is 
thus  defined :  "  Vinum  novum  in  botro  (new 
wine  in  the  cluster)  Hos.  ii.  5  ;  vinum  novum 
(new  wine),  Deut  vii.  13."  To  indicate  the  der- 
ivation of  "tirosh"  its  root  in  i  Kings  xxi.  15, 
"  posside  vineam,"  possess  the  vineyard,  is  cited 
to  hint  that  the  meaning  of  "  tirosh  "  as  "  new 
wine,"  or  grape-juice,  "  in  the  cluster,"  is  inherent 
in  the  verb  from  which  it  is  derived.  In  a  later 
edition,  published  at  Lyons,  a.  d.  1625,  Pagninus 
farther  considers  the  derivation  of  "  tirosh."  He 
says :  "  Some  derive  it  from  expelling  (a  expel- 


y6  The  Divine  Lazv  as  to  JFz/ies. 

lendo),  because  it  comes  fresh  from  the  skins 
(recens  a  suis  pelleculis),  as  if  it  were  pushed  out 
of  its  house  and  expelled." 

In  the  Lexicon  Heptaglottorum  of  Edmund 
Castell,  of  which  there  were  several  editions  pub- 
lished between  1669  and  1790,  whose  testimo- 
nies belong  of  course  to  the  early  scholarship  of 
the  Reformation,  the  testimony  as  to  the  deriva- 
tion and  meaning  of  "  tirosh  "  is  to  the  same  ef- 
fect, yet  fuller.  In  his  study,  CastcU  included  an 
examination  of  the  Hebrew,  Chaldee,  Syriac, 
Samaritan,  Ethiopic,  and  Arabic  versions  and  in- 
terpretations. In  his  edition  published  at  Lon- 
don in  1686,  considering  "tirosh"  under  its  root 
"  yarash,"  Castell  gives  this  derivation  :  "•  yarash 
from  rushy  He  adds :  "  Hiphil,  horish,  possi- 
dendum  dedit  (he  gives  to  be  possessed),  here- 
dem  instituit  (he  establishes  as  heir),  2d  Chron. 
XX.  II  ;  Num.  xiv.  24."  He  adds:  "  But  oftener 
he  expels  from  possession — he  exterminates;  he 
makes  poor;  for  here  {i.e.  in  the  Hiphil)  it  is  al- 
most always  (fere)  taken  in  a  bad  sense."  In  the 
issue  edited  by  J.  D.  Michaelis  in  1790,  this  defi- 
nition of  "  tirosh  "  is  given:  "  Mustum,  liquor 
uvarum  primum  expressus.  Num.  viii.  12  ;  grape- 
juice,  the  liquor  of  grapes  first  pressed  out." 
Here  is  a  recognition  of  the  custom  alluded  to 
by  Moses  as  existing  in  Egypt  in  Joseph's  day, 
hinted  in  Isa.  Ixv.  8  where  rox  indicates  that 


I 


Greek  Translation  of  '^Tirosh''         yj 

the  grapes  have  their  skins  burst  by  the  pres- 
sure of  the  now  flowing  juice,  and  fully  de- 
scribed by  Roman  writers  from  Cato  to  Pliny, 
or  from  b.  c.  200  to  a.  d.  100.  The  custom  of 
gently  pressing  out  first  the  sugary  "  liquor  "  of 
the  grape,  which  had  in  it  no  fermenting  ingre- 
dient and  would  not  intoxicate,  is  clearly  seen  to 
have  been  known  to  this  lexicographer  of  the 
seventeenth  century. 

Again,  in  the  Lexicon  of  Leopold,  published 
at  Leipsic  in  1832,  "yayin"  is  derived,  as  by 
Gesenius,  from  "  yavan,"  to  ferment ;  its  very  deri- 
vation showing  its  generic  character.  On  the 
other  hand,  "tirosh,"  derived  from  "yarash,"  is 
associated  with  the  shortened  root-word  "  reshet," 
a  net,  to  indicate  a  common  derivation ;  while 
the  meaning  of  tirosh  is  given  as  "  mustum," 
grape-juice.  The  thorough  scholar,  who  knows 
how  to  appreciate  the  testimonies  of  such  men 
at  such  ages  as  those  in  which  they  lived,  will 
not  only  appreciate  modern  Hebrew  lexicog- 
raphers, but  will  go  back  to  their  authorities. 

The  comparison  between  jj/^jj/z>2  and  twosh  in 
Hos.  iv.  II,  requires  special  notice  in  the  Greek 
translation  made  by  Hebrews.  The  Greek  trans- 
lators render  "  tirosh  "  by  methusma  ;  a  word  de- 
manding careful  examination.  As  lexicogra- 
phers agree,  the  root-noun,  methe  or  methu,  in- 
dicates excessive  drinking,  without  regard  to  the 


78  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

liquor  used,  and  is  the  counterpart  of  gorman- 
dizing in  eating.  The  Jewish  commentators, 
Philo  and  Maimonides,  hereafter  directly  quoted, 
representing  two  important  eras  in  later  Jewish 
history,  regard  the  "  tirosh  "  of  Hosea  iv.  1 1  as 
equivalent  to  the  "  debsh  "  of  Solomon  in  Prov\ 
XXV.  27  ;  and  they  supposed  that  Hosea  sums  up 
in  a  single  expression  the  warnings  of  Solomon 
against  the  three  sensual  indulgences — licentious- 
ness, intoxication,  and  gluttony. 

This  root-meaning  is  confirmed  by  the  cognate 
root-words  in  Sanscrit  and  old  German.  It  is  il- 
lustrated by  the  English  word  "drunk,"  from 
"  drink ; "  which  has  only  as  a  secondary  mean- 
ing "  to  be  intoxicated  ; "  and  which  does  not  in 
itself,  but  in  its  connection  in  the  writer's  mind, 
have  this  latter  idea  connected  with  it.  The 
noun  "  methusma,"  used  by  the  Hebrew-Greek 
translators  in  Hos.  iv.  11,  is  not  found  in  classic 
Greek ;  but  it  follows  the  analogy  of  its  root  in  the 
later  Alexandrine,  Byzantine,  and  modern  Greek, 
as  the  best  lexicons  indicate.  The  verb  "  me- 
thusko,,"  frequent  in  classic  Greek,  is  often  used 
in  the  generic  signification  of  its  root.  Thus 
Xenophon,  (Cyrop.  I.  3)  uses  the  expression  "  pi- 
non  ou  methusketai,"  drinking,  he  is  not  filled 
with  drink.  Plato  (Sympos.)  employs  the  phrase 
"emethusthen    nektaros,"    he   was    filled     with 


Hebrew  "Yayin,"  includes  all  Wines.     79 

nectar  ;  a  product  of  the  grape  which  could  not 
intoxicate. 

An  important  confirming  as  well  as  illustrative 
testimony  as  to  the  nature  of  tirosh  is  more- 
over found  in  the  Latin  translation  of  Jerome 
made  about  b.  c.  400,  during  his  residence  of 
thirty  years  in  Palestine ;  where  this  thorough 
student  sought  special  preparation  for  that  work 
which  gave  all  Western  Europe  their  chief  guide 
to  the  meaning  of  the  Scripture  records  from  the 
fifth  to  the  fifteenth  centuries.  While  Jerome 
uses  frequently  the  generic  word  vinum,  corre- 
sponding to  the  generic  terms  oinos  in  Greek, 
vin  in  French,  and  wine  in  English,  he  uses  for 
"tirosh  "  in  Deut.  vii.  13  ;  Neh.  x.  t^'j  ;  Isa.  xxiv. 
7,  where  the  fresh  product  required  it,  vindemia, 
grape-harvest  or  vintage ;  in  Isa.  Ixv.  8  the  yet 
more  special  term  granum,  or  berry ;  and  in  Mic. 
vi.  15  he  uses  the  term  musttcm,  or  unfermented 
wine.  If  any  mind  could  settle  both  the  mean- 
ing of  the  Hebrew  tirosh  and  of  methusma  in 
the  Greek  translation,  it  was  Jerome. 

"YAYIN"  the  generic  HEBREW  TERM  FOR  WINES, 
AND    MOSES'    LAW    OF    ABSTINENCE. 

The  fact  that  yayin  is  a  generic  word,  includ- 
ing many  varieties  of  wines,  is  manifest  from 
these  considerations.     It  is  used  in  more  cases 


So  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

than  all  the  other  special  terms  combined,  occur 
ring  more  than  one  hundred  and  forty  times ;  it 
is  found  in  the  earliest  and  latest  history  (Gen. 
ix.  21  to  Neh.  xiii.  15)  ;  and  it  appears  in  the 
laws,  the  precepts,  and  the  prophetic  writings 
covering  the  three  ages  of  Hebrew  literature. 
In  the  early  translations  it  is  treated  as  a  generic 
term  ;  being  rendered  by  the  Greek  ohios  and 
Latin  vinuni,  which,  like  the  modem  French 
vin,  the  German  wein,  and  the  English  wirie, 
cover  every  variety  of  drink  prepared  from  the 
grape.  The  vital  practical  questions  connected 
with  the  present  discussion  are  these :  First,  as 
a  generic  word,  does  yayin  include  unfermented 
and  unintoxicating  beverages  made  from  the 
juice  of  the  grape?  Second,  in  the  offerings 
made  to  God,  were  intoxicating  wines  prescribed? 
Third,  was  intoxicating  wine  used  at  the  feasts 
of  the  Jews,  especially  at  the  Passover  ?  Fourth, 
was  the  abstinence  of  the  Nazarites  a  temporary 
or  a  permanent  provision  ?  Fifth,  how  far  was 
abstinence  from  intoxicating  drinks  taught  by 
Moses  to  be  a  virtue  required  in  all  men  ? 

That  the  generic  term  included  all  classes  of 
wines,  fermented  and  unfermented,  is  indicated 
by  the  following  considerations.  Its  association, 
like  tirosh,  with  corn,  oil,  and  other  natural 
products,  implies  that  the  natural  as  well  as  the 
artificial  juice   of  the   grape   is  referred  to   by 


I 


Wine  in  Hebrew  Offerings  and  Feasts.    8 1 

"yayin"  (see  ist  Chron.  ix.  29;  2d  Chron.  ii. 
15;  Neh.  V.  15  ;  ^nH.  15;  and  Hag.  ii.  12). 
Again,  the  allusion  to  the  gathering  of  "  wine " 
(Isa.  xvi.  10)  forbids  any  other  interpretation 
of  the  word  yayin  than  this ;  that  it  includes  the 
fresh  grape-juice.  Yet,  again,  the  "wine"  associ- 
ated with  bread  brought  out  by  Melchisedek 
(Gen.xiv.  18)  and  the  wine  associated  with  milk 
in  the  figure  of  the  Gospel  provisions  (Isa.  Iv.  i) 
naturally  imply  the  fresh  product ;  the  wine  in 
which  Judah  was  to  wash  his  garment  (Gen. 
xlix.  11)  certainly  refers  to  the  juice  of  the  grape 
in  the  process  of  pressing ;  while  the  w^ine  from 
which  Daniel  abstained  while  fasting  is  certainly 
not  the  intoxicating  beverage  of  which,  from 
boyhood,  he  refused  to  partake  (comp.  Dan.  i 
5,  8,  16,  with  X.  3).  There  is  reason,  however 
to  conclude  thai  the  Hebrew  word  yayin  was 
not  as  comprehensive  in  meaning  as  the  Greek 
oinos,  the  Latin  vinum,  and  the  French  vi?t  ; 
since  in  these  languages  an  adjective  qualifying 
the  generic  root  is  used,  while  in  the  Hebrew  sev- 
eral distinct  roots,  as  we  have  seen,  are  employed. 
Offerings  of  wine  are  required  (Ex.  xxix.  40 ; 
Lev.  xxiii.  13;  Num.  xv.  5—10;  xxviii.  14). 
These  offerings,  however,  are  in  the  two  latter 
legislative  acts  restricted  to  the  period  after  which 
they  should  have  "come  into  the  land  given 
to  them ; "    and  could  there  gather  "  harvests.' 

4* 


82  The  Divhte  Law  as  to  Wines. 

The  only  historical  reference  to  these  offerings 
(Hos.  ix.  1-4)  plainly  implies,  that,  as  it  was  the 
new  corn  fresh  from  the  "  corn-floor  "  which  was 
at  the  time  of  its  gathering  to  be  made  the  an- 
nual offering,  so  it  was  the  "  new  wine "  fresh 
from  the  "  wine-press,"  which  then,  as  now,  in  the 
same  land,  was  to  be  gathered  by  the  tithing- man. 
As  to  wine  drunk  at  feasts,  especially  at  the 
Passover,  of  special  importance  since  it  was  as- 
sociated with  Christ's  use  of  the  cup  at  the 
united  Passover  and  Lord's  Supper,  the  follow- 
ing facts  must  be  weighed :  First,  no  mention 
is  made  of  "  wine,"  or  of  any  drink,  in  the  many 
written  statutes  and  recorded  observances  relat- 
ing to  the  Passover  in  the  Old  Testament  his- 
tory. Second,  there  is  but  one  allusion  to  the 
wine  used  at  the  feast  of  the  Tabernacles  (Neh. 
viii.  10).  This  drink  is  called  in  Hebrew  "  mam- 
thaqim ; "  rendered  in  Greek  "glukasma,"  in  Latin, 
"mulsum,"  in  EngHsh,  "sweet;"  and  it  is  mani- 
festly the  fresh  juice  of  the  grape,  since  the  feast 
occurred  at  the  season  of  grape-harvest.  Third, 
the  uniform  statement  of  later  Hebrew  com- 
mentators, with  the  exceptions  to  be  noted,  ac- 
cord with  the  fact,  that  the  wine  used  at  the 
Passover,  whenever  the  custom  of  the  cup  at  this 
feast  was  introduced,  was  controlled  by  the  pro- 
vision that  nothing  fermented  should  be  used  at 
that  feast. 


Abstinence  from  Wine  under  Moses  Law.  83 

The  abstinence  of  the  Nazarites,  for  whom 
statutes  are  made  by  Moses  (Num.  vi.  1-2 1), 
was,  without  question,  an  extreme  pledge ;  since 
it  includes  every  product  of  the  vine,  even 
moist  grapes  and  dried  raisins  (vi.  4,  5).  It  was 
also,  with  some,  at  least,  a  temporary  pledge 
when  taken  in  this  extreme  form  (vi.  21).  With 
others,  however,  it  was  a  permanent,  life -long 
pledge.  That  life-long  pledge  was  deemed  es- 
sential in  mothers,  like  the  wife  of  Manoah,  whose 
offspring,  like  Samson,  were  to  be  marked  by 
eminent  physical  vigor  (Jud.  xiii.  4,  7),  and,  like 
Samuel,  by  moral  integrity  (i  Sam.  i.  15)  ;  and  it 
was  equally  essential  to  men  who,  in  each  suc- 
ceeding dark  era  of  their  nation's  history,  were  to 
be,  like  Jeremiah  and  Daniel,  the  hope  of  its  re- 
stored prosperity  (Judg.  xvi.  17  ;  Amos,  ii  11  ; 
Jerem.  xxxv.  6;  Lam.  iv.  7 ;  Dan.  i.  5-16). 

As  to  the  general  duty  of  abstinence  from  in- 
toxicating beverages  taught  by  Moses,  these  facts 
are  to  be  noted.  Moses  himself,  trained,  as  his 
history  shows  (Acts  vii.  22),  among  the  learned 
class  of  Egypt,  was  accustomed  to  the  laws  of 
abstinence  above  cited  from  Egyptian  history. 
Moreover,  he  found  listing  among  his  country- 
men a  band  of  "  consecrated  "  young  men,  with 
u^hom  the  extreme  of  abstinence  was  made  to 
confirm  the  law ;  the  word  "  nazar,"  to  consecrate, 
giving  origin  to  the  title  "  Nazarites,"  or  "sepa 


84  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines, 

ratists,"  as  is  indicated  in  their  laws  (Num.  vi.  2, 
3,  5,  6,  12).  Farther,  this  "separation,"  or  conse- 
cration, was  required  of  the  Levites  devoted  to 
the  ministry  (Lev.  xxii.  2)  ;  abstinence  from 
wine  and  intoxicating  liquor  being  specially  en- 
joined on  those  engaged  in  ministerial  duties 
(Lev.  X.  9).  Yet  more,  this  became  a  permanent 
obligation,  suggested  by  moral  conviction,  in  all 
subsequent  Hebrew  history  (Prov.  xxiii.  31 ;  xxxi« 
4;  Hos.  ix.  10-12  ;  Ezek.  xliv.  21  ;  Zech.  vii.  3; 
Dan.  i.  5).  No  one  can  impartially  trace  this 
record,  and  not  recognize  that  in  the  entire  his- 
tory of  the  Hebrew  nation,  beginning  with  the 
founder  and  legislator  of  the  State,  the  whole 
weight  of  law,  morality,  and  religion  is  against 
the  use  of  intoxicating  drinks. 

WINES  IN  DESPOTIC  AGES  OF  LUXURY  IN  WESTERN 
ASIA. 

A  new  era  opened  on  Western  Asia  when, 
after  the  culmination  of  ancient  civilization,  des- 
potism brought  in  luxury  and  degeneracy.  Dur- 
ing four  centuries,  from  about  B.C.  1,000  to  B.C. 
600,  oppressive  and  luxurious  monarchs  reigned 
from  the  Nile  to  the  Indus,  alike  in  Egypt, 
Palestine,  Assyria,  Media  and  Persia.  In  Egypt 
the  early  influence  of  moral  and  religious  convic- 
tion, leading  to  abstinence  from  intoxicating 
wine  and  the  use  of  only  the  expressed  juice  of 


Wines  in  Asiatic  Luxury.  85 

the  grape,  or  unintoxicating  wines,  passed  away 
Plutarch  intimates  that  a  new  era  opened  with 
Psammiticus,  whose  reign  began  about  B.C.  664 ; 
his  remark  being  that "  the  kings,"  not  the  priests, 
•'  began  to  drink  wine  from  the  time  of  Psam- 
miticus." Prior  to  that  era,  as  the  tombs  of 
Thebes  reveal,  luxury  had  been  growing ;  women 
even  at  table  being  seen  vomiting  from  exces- 
sive eating  and  drinking.  This  drinking,  how- 
ever, must  have  been  of  the  sweet  unfermented 
juice  of  the  grape ;  since  the  persons  vomiting 
are  always  sitting  upright,  supporting  themselves, 
and  showing  no  signs  of  being  overcome  by  in- 
toxicating liquors.  From  the  days  of  Psammiti- 
cus, however,  we  may  well  believe  that  kings 
defied  the  laws  of  their  early  training  ;  since  this 
same  result  appears  among  the  kings  of  Israel 
and  the  nations  in  the  valleys  of  the  Euphrates 
and  Tigris.  The  testimony  of  Athenaeus  (Deipn.) 
confirms  both  this  increase  of  luxury,  and  also  the 
stern  effort  of  Egyptian  wise  men  to  counteract 
it.  The  varied  kinds  of  Egyptian  wines  enumer- 
ated by  Pliny  and  others,  show  that  the  pam- 
pering of  the  palate  had  assumed  a  new  and  con- 
trolling influence  ;  while  the  special  mention  of 
light  wines  is  proof  of  the  effort  to  resist  the 
tendency  to  use  intoxicating  wines.  Thus  of 
one  kind  Athenaeus  says,  that  it  is  "  not  exciting 
to  the  head ; "  and  of  another  kind,  that  it  is  so 


86  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines, 

mild  and  nutritive,  that  it  is  not  injurious  to 
those  "  afflicted  with  fever." 

In  Israel,  too,  a  new  era  arose.  Contrary  to 
the  remonstrances  of  both  Moses  and  Samuel, 
kings  were  chosen ;  who,  among  other  evils,  as 
had  been  foretold,  introduced  sensuality,  luxury, 
and  the  resort  to  intoxicating  beverages  (Deut. 
xvii.  14,  17;  I  Sam.  viii.  5,  13,  14).  To  this 
age,  from  David  to  Josiah,  belong  the  writings  of 
David,  of  Solomon,  and  of  the  prophets  of  Is- 
rael's degeneracy  before  the  captivity  in  Baby- 
lon ;  which  are  most  instructive  as  to  the  moral 
and  religious  law  of  wines. 

The  kinds  of  wine  mentioned  during  this  pe- 
riod are  specially  significant.  The  simple  tirosh, 
or  unintoxicating  juice  of  the  grape,  is  only 
twice  mentioned :  David  referring  (Psal.  iv.  7) 
to  the  products  "  corn  and  tirosh,"  and  Solomon 
(Prov.  iii.  10)  comparing  to  "tirosh"  the  simple 
and  sweet  fruits  of  virtue  and  piety.  On  the 
other  hand,  two  contrasts  appear.  First,  the 
artificial  product  shekar,  strong  drink,  is  fre- 
quently met,  and  the  effects  of  yayin,  fermented 
wine,  are  constantly  pictured  and  condemned. 
Second,  as  if  't  were  a  new  effort  to  resist  the 
downward  tendency,  two  new  preparations  of 
grape-juice  are  introduced.  The  first  of  these, 
dsis,  is  evidently  a  carefully-prepared  must,  or 
unfermented  wine ;  and  the  second,  eskiskak,  is 


Wines  in  Solomons  Writings.  87 

the  juice  of  the  grape  boiled  down  to  a  solid 
cake.     Each  of  these  deserves  notice. 

The  verb  shakar,  to  drink  to  intoxication,  and 
the  noun  skekar,  strong  drink,  are  met  in  the 
writings  of  David  and  of  Solomon  the  kings, 
and  of  Isaiah,  Micah,  and  Nahum,  the  prophets. 
In  the  Psalm  prophesying  the  insults  heaped 
upon  the  Messiah  on  the  cross,  David  foretells 
that  He  would  have  occasion  to  exclaim  (Psalm 
Ixix.  12),  "I  was  the  song  of  the  drunkards." 
In  his  song,  Solomon  represents  his  beloved  as 
picturing  the  intoxication  of  impure  sensual 
affection  seen  in  her  rivals  and  abusers  (i.  6  ;  v. 
7)  ;  and  she  contrasts  this  false  with  true  spiritual 
love  by  a  comparison  of  simple  country  diet  with 
court  luxuries.  Her  language  is,  as  Fuerst's  defi- 
nitions indicate  :  "  I  have  eaten  my  sweet-shrubs 
with  grape-syrup  (debsk)  ;  I  have  drunk  my  wine 
(^yayin)  with  milk  ; "  then,  in  irony  adding : 
"  Eat,  companions,  swallow  down ;  drink  to  in- 
toxication, cousins."  In  his  Proverbs  Solomon 
declares  (xx.  i),"  Strong  drink  is  raging,"  and  he 
makes  Lemuel's  mother  say  (xxxi.  4,  6),  "  It  is 
not  for  princes  to  drink  strong  drink  ....  give 
strong  drink  to  him  that  is  ready  to  perish." 
Isaiah,  the  evangelic  prophet,  utters  woes  on 
them  that  "  follow,"  and  on  them  that  "  mingle 
strong  drink  "  (v.  1 1,  22) ;  he  declares  it  **  bitter  " 
(xxiv.  9)  ;  he  pictures  those  "  out  of  the  way  "  and 


88  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines, 

"  staggering  from  strong  drink  "  (xxviii.  7  ;  xxiy. 
9) ;  he  threatens  men  who  "  shall  be  filled  with 
strong  drink  as  with  their  own  blood"  (xlix.  26); 
who  shall  be  "  afflicted  through  intoxication " 
(li.  21);  who  invite  others,  saying  "we  will  fill 
ourselves  with  strong  drink  "  (Ivi.  1 2) ;  and  who, 
rejecting  the  Redeemer,  coming  in  "garments 
dyed  "  with  his  own  blood,  will  hear  the  curse  : 
"  I  will  make  them  drunk  in  my  fury."  Finally, 
Micah  (ii.  11),  the  echo  of  Isaiah,  pictures  the 
prophet  of  falsehood  and  "  lies  "  as  prophesying 
under  the  influence  "  of  wine  and  strong  drink." 
The  destroying  effects  of  yayin,  wine,  in  this 
age,  are  also  vividly  portrayed.  David,  as  a 
shepherd-boy,  is  sent  by  his  father  with  the  shep- 
herd's fare  of  bread,  parched  corn  and  cheese 
(i  Sam.  xvii.  17,  18),  to  the  army;  but  in  his 
later  experience  he  meets  Abigail,  who  brings  to 
him  "  two  bottles  of  wine,"  and  has  a  husband 
who  drinks  wine  to  beastly  intoxication  (i  Sam. 
XXV.  18,  37)  ;  while  in  his  later  life  Ziba  in  false 
friendship  brings  to  David  bread,  raisins,  sum- 
mer fruit  and  "  a  bottle  of  wine  that  such  as  be 
faint  in  the  wilderness  might  drink  "  (2  Sam.  xvi. 
I,  2).  Often  in  David's  reign  wine  is  mentioned 
with  corn  as  a  product  of  the  field  (i  Chron.  ix. 
29  ;  xii.  40)  ;  but  David's  own  three  allusions  to 
it  are  pictures  such  as  many  a  father  in  our 
modem  society  learns  to  appreciate.     Absalom. 


Diluted  Wine  Commended.  89 

brought  up  at  the  court  of  the  king  of  Syria,  his 
mother's  father,  makes  a  feast  of  "  wine "  foi 
David's  sons ;  and  when  Amnon  is  "  merry  with 
wine  "  he  is  murdered,  while  Absalom  becomes  a 
traitor  (2  Sam.  xiii.  27,  28  ;  comp.  iii.  3,  and  xiii. 
'i^']).  No  wonder  that  David's  only  allusions  to 
yayin,  wine,  take  this  cast :  "  Thou  hast  made 
us  to  drink  the  wine  of  astonishment "  (Ps.  Ix.  3); 
"  In  the  hand  of  the  Lord  is  a  cup,  and  the  wine 
is  red "  (Ixxv.  8) ;  "  The  Lord  awaked  ....  as 
a  mighty  man  that  shouteth  by  reason  of  wine  " 
(Ixxviii.  65). 

Solomon,  however,  writing  from  a  yet  deeper 
experience,  brings  out  the  real  curse  of  the  times  ; 
for  wine  must  have  been  doing  a  fatal  work,  or 
such  pictures  could  not  have  been  drawn,  and 
such  warnings  would  not  have  been  needed.  In 
the  poem  of  his  guileless  youth  there  are  six 
allusions  t\^  wine  ;  three  declaring  that  "  love  "  is 
better  than  "  wine  " ;  and  the  other  three  refer- 
ring to  light  beverages,  wine  with  "  milk,"  the 
"  best,"  and  the  "  spiced  "  wine  (Song  i.  2,4;  iv. 
10;  V.  I  ;  vii.  9;  viii.  2).  In  the  poem  of  his 
manhood,  his  counsels  for  youth  are  full  of  warn- 
ings, not  against  excessive  drinking,  but  against 
any  use  of  wine.  He  designates  it  as  "  the  wine 
of  violence"  (Prov.  iv.  17),  and  a  "  mocker"  (xx. 
i).  He  not  only  warns  youth  against  becoming 
^"  wine-bibbers  "  and  "  tarrying  long  at  the  wine,' 


90  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines, 

but  also  exhorts,  ''Look  not  on  the  wine  when  it 
is  red,  when  it  giveth  its  color  in  the  cup,  when 
it  moveth  itself  aright :  at  the  last  it  biteth  like  a 
serpent  and  stingeth  like  an  adder  "  (xxiii.  20-3 1). 
He  closes  his  poem  with  the  counsel  of  King 
Lemuel's  mother, "  It  is  not  for  kings,  O  Lemuel, 
it  is  not  for  kings  to  drink  wine."  In  this,  as  in 
all  ages,  experience  taught  that  total  abstinence 
is  absolutely  indispensable  to  any  one  who  aspires 
to  eminent  success  in  life,  or  who  attains  to 
moral  fidelity  in  a  high  trust. 

The  equally  important,  and  only  other  allusion 
to  wine  in  this  poem,  calls  attention  to  the  "  min- 
gled wine  "  which  "  wisdom  "  commends  (ix.  2, 
5).  This  recalls  a  resort  most  interesting  in  Gre- 
cian and  Roman  history  and  in  the  modern  prac- 
tices of  the  Hebrews  and  of  the  Greek  Church. 
Through  the  influence,  without  question,  of  Ger- 
man associations,  the  Hebrew  mesak,  to  mix,  is 
regarded  by  Gesenius  and  Fuerst  as  referring  to 
the  intermixing  in  wines  of  spices  and  other  in- 
flaming ingredients.  Gesenius  thinks  the  He- 
brew mesak  cognate  with  the  Sanscrit  mis,  the 
Greek  .misgo  (or  mignumi),  and  the  Latin 
misco  ;  while  Fuerst  doubts  this  relation,  "  since 
the  sibilant  here  is  not  original."  Both  overlook 
the  fact  that  the  Greek  translators  used  the  root 
kerao  in  rendering  mesak;  a  word  used  from 
Homer's  day  as  distinct  from  mignumi^  to  indi-« 


The  Early  Prophets  on  Wine.  91 

cate  a  weakening  of  wines  by  admixture  with 
water  (see  Liddell  &  Scott).  Jerome  in  the 
Latin  uses  misceo ;  and  this  term,  as  Leverett 
shows  from  Cicero,  in  allusions  to  mixed  wine, 
indicates  a  dilution  with  water.  The  teaching 
of  Solomon  in  this  proverb,  therefore,  is  the  doc- 
trine of  the  Roman  moralists  and  of  the  modern 
Greek  Church  ;  that  when  wine  is  to  be  used 
medicinally  and  in  sacramental  service  it  should 
be  diluted. 

In  the  poem  of  his  old  age,  designed  for  those 
determined  to  try  for  themselves  rather  than  ac- 
cept the  experience  of  others,  Solomon  first  cites 
his  own  youthful  determination  to  test  the  pleas- 
ures of  wine-drinking  (Eccles.  ii.  3).  To  youth 
deciding  thus  to  act  he  says,  "  Go  thy  way  .... 
drink  thy  wine  with  a  merry  heart ; "  but  he  adds 
the  caution  (x.  19),  "A  feast  is  made  for  laughter 
and  wine  makes  merry ;"  and  he  closes  by  fore- 
warning the  drinker  of  the  certain  penalty : 
"Know  thou  that  for  all  these  things  God  will 
bring  thee  into  judgment "  (xi.  9). 

Isaiah,  the  prophet,  who  looked  for  a  purer 
day,  like  Solomon,  is  full  of  warning  as  to  the 
temptations  of  wine.  He  pictures  wine-drink- 
ing, which  inflames  men  at  feasts,  as  the  evil  of 
his  age  (v.  11,  12,  22)  ;  he  cites  as  the  source  of 
this  corruption  the  adoption  of  the  Epicurean 
maxim, "  Let  us  eat  and  drink,  for  to-morrow  we 


92  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines, 

die  "  (xxii.  13)  ;  and  he  describes  how  the  reveler's 
"song"  and  his  "crying  for  wine"  lead  to  error, 
misery,  and  quenchless  thirst  (xxiv.  9, 1 1  ;  xxviii. 
I,  7).  Going  further,  he  pictures  the  reeling  of 
the  emaciated  toper  when  through  poverty  he  can 
no  more  gain  his  beverage  (xxix.  9  ;  li.  21)  ;  and 
he  closes  with  the  scene  of  confirmed  sots  deter- 
mining to  sit  night  and  day  drugged  with  wine 
(Ivi.  1 2).  Finally,  in  contrast  with  this  abuse  of 
God's  gift  in  the  product  of  the  vine,  Isaiah  pic- 
tures the  Gospel  provision  of  "  wine  and  milk  ;" 
to  whose  unintoxicating  and  healthy  use  the  Re- 
deemer of  man  invites  (Iv.  i). 

Hosea,  like  Solomon,  unites  "wine"  and 
"whoredom,"  as  necessarily  associated  (iv.  11); 
and  he  pictures  the  kings  of  his  day  as  made 
"sick  with  bottles  of  wine"  (vii.  5).  Finally, 
and  specially  noteworthy,  he  declares  the  offer- 
ing of  wine  to  Jehovah  as  "  displeasing"  to  Him 
(ix.  4)  ;  a  declaration  which  illustrates  and  con- 
firms  the  view  of  Moses'  law,  above  stated,  as  ex- 
cluding alcoholic  wines. 

Joel  calls  attention  to  the  "howling"  of  wine- 
drinkers  in  their  suffering  after  debauch  ;  and  he 
pictures  the  fiendish  as  well  as  beastly  sensuality 
of  wine-sellers  who  will  buy  the  daughters  of  their 
victims  as  prostitutes  "  for  wine"  (i.  5  ;  iii.  3). 

Amos  again  pictures  the  wine-drinker  as  for- 
getting the  claims  of  humanity  in   his  thirst  (ii. 


The  Early  Prophets  on  Wine.  93 

8)  ;  as  tempting  the  Nazarites  to  be  faithless  to 
their  vow  of  abstinence  (ii.  12) ;  and  as  beastly 
as  swine  in  drinking  from  "  bowls."  Most  of  all, 
he  dwells  on  the  promise  of  the  purer  day ;  and 
as  Isaiah,  recalls  the  simple  return  to  the  use  of 
the  natural  vintage  (ix.  14).  Micah  denounces 
the  people  for  accepting  as  authority  lying  proph- 
ets, prophesying  under  the  influence  of  wine  ; 
and  warns  the  people  of  the  desolating  war 
which  their  corruption  will  bring,  when  they 
can  secure  only  the  tzrosh,  or  fresh  grape-juice, 
while  invading  foes  will  come  in  before  their 
wine  is  matured  (ii.  11  ;  vi.  15).  Finally,  Ha- 
bakkuk,  the  sublimest  of  prophets,  gives  a  fitting 
close  to  the  uniform  voice  of  Old  Testament 
writers  during  this  age ;  pointing  to  the  general 
fact  that  crime  is  committed  under  the  influence 
of  intoxicating  drink ;  warning  the  man  who 
"transgresseth  by  wine;"  and  declaring,  "Woe 
to  him  that  giveth  his  neighbor  drink  ;  that  put- 
test  thy  bottle  to  him  "  (ii.  5,  15). 

In  the  prevalence  of  the  use  of  strong  drink 
and  of  wine,  against  which  all  the  inspired  He- 
brew writers  of  this  age  unanimously  remon- 
strate, as  above  noted,  two  new  preparations 
of  the  juice  of  the  grape,  in  addition  to  the  must 
and  the  diluted  wine  before  employed,  are  in  this 
age  introduced,  to  utilize  the  product  of  the  vine 


94  The  Divme  Law  as  to  Wines. 

and  to  forestall  the  temptation  to  make  intcx* 
icating  wine. 

The  first  of  these,  'asis,  a  word  derived  from 
asas,  to  tread  out,  is  the  fresh  juice,  used  as  in 
Joseph's  day.  It  occurs  but  five  times,  and  only 
in  this  age ;  in  Solomon's  Song  (viii.  2)  where  it 
is  the  juice  of  the  pomegranate  instead  of  the 
grape;  in  Isa.  xlix.  26,  in  Joel  i.  5  and  iii.  18 
and  in  Amos  ix.  13,  where  it  is  translated  "  new," 
or  "sweet-wine."  It  is  rendered  by  the  Greek 
translators  "wine,  new  wine,  and  sweetening" 
(glukasmon)  ;  and  by  Jerome,  in  the  Latin 
"  must,"  or  "  sweetness  "  {dulcedo).  The  second 
new  preparation  of  the  grape,  eshishah,  translated 
"  flagons,"  as  if  it  were  the  receiver,  and  not  the 
article  received,  is  by  all  authorities  recognized 
as  grape-juice  boiled  down  to  a  thick  jelly  or 
cake.  It  is  mentioned  only  four  times :  first, 
as  a  part  of  David's  feast  to  the  people  at  large 
on  the  bringing  of  the  ark  to  Jerusalem  (2  Sam. 
vi.  19  and  i  Chr.  xvi.  3)  ;  second,  in  Solomon's 
Song  (ii.  5)  ;  and  third,  in  Hosea  (iii.  i),  where 
the  record  is  not  simply  "jelly,"  as  in  other  cases, 
but  "jelly  of  grapes."  No  thoughtful  mind  can 
fail  to  observe,  as  we  shall  remark  in  the  later 
Roman  history,  the  effort  of  discerning  men  to 
forestall,  if  they  could  not  eradicate,  the  vice  of 
habitual  drinking  of  intoxicating  wines. 

Passing  eastward  now  to  the  broad  valleys  of 


Assyrian  Intoxication  with  Wines.      95 

the  Euphrates  and  Tigris,  we  find  among  the 
nations  rapidly  succeeding  each  other  in  Assyria, 
Media,  and  Persia,  a  yet  more  marked  passage 
from  the  use  of  the  simple  products  of  the  grape 
in  the  vigorous  infancy  of  nations,  to  the  luxury 
which  always  is  induced  by  wealth  and  ease. 
Plato  marks  the  parallel  between  the  early  As- 
syrian and  Grecian  advancement ;  and  Plutarch 
extends  this  to  Rome.  The  near  approximation 
of  the  three  eras  from  which  authentic  history 
began  its  reckoning — the  Grecian  era  of  b.c.  776, 
the  Roman  of  b.c.  753,  and  the  Babylonian  of 
B.C.  747 — marks  a  culminating  point  in  the  prog- 
ress of  these  associated  nations ;  while  it  is  also 
a  central  point  in  the  history  of  degeneracy  pro- 
moted by  intoxicating  wines. 

The  last  of  the  Assyrian  kings  who  ruled  at 
Nineveh  was  Sardanapalus,  who  came  to  the 
throne  about  b.c.  771.  Prior  to  that  era,  the  As- 
syrians had  been  distinguished  as  leaders  in 
science  and  art ;  their  rulers  were  taught  the 
highest  principles  of  justice,  integrity,  and  self- 
restraint  ;  and  their  teachers  were  allied  to  the 
Brahmins  of  India  in  their  abstinence  from  wine 
(Herod.  B.  I. ;  Plato  Apol.  c.  35  ;  Strabo  B.  XVI. ; 
Plut  Alcib.  c.  i).  In  the  latter  portion  of  this 
period,  on  the  visit  of  the  Hebrew  prophet,  Jo- 
nah, about  B.C.  862,  the  religious  spirit  of  the 
people  is  illustrated  ;  the  more  conspicuous  be- 


96  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines, 

cause  the  prophet  seemed  to  anticipate  its  in- 
fluence (Jonah  iii.  5-9;  iv.  2).  Sardanapalus, 
however,  reaching  the  culmination  of  degrada- 
tion, gave  himself  up  to  effeminacy  and  intoxica- 
tion ;  his  example  being  so  marked  that  Plato, 
Aristotle,  and  Plutarch  comment  upon  it.  His 
maxim  was,  "  Esthie,  pine,  aphrodiaze,  t'alla  de 
oiiden"  (Plut.  de  Alexand.  B.  II.),  "  Eat,  drink, 
and  gratify  lust ;  all  things  else  are  of  no  ac- 
count." To  the  same  purport  he  composed  two 
lines  for  his  own  tombstone,  beginning,  "  Kein 
echo  OSS  ephagon"  etc. ;  "  I  still  have  what  I 
ate ; "  on  which  Cicero  (Tusc.  Quaes.  B.  V.  n. 
"loi),  remarks,  "What  else,  said  Aristotle,  would 
you  inscribe  on  the  tomb  of  an  ox,  not  of  a 
king ! "  Even  the  convivial  Athenseus  has  a 
moral  on  debauchery  like  this  (Deipn.  B.  XII). 
It  might  be  supposed  that  the  nation  succeed- 
ing to  this  king,  that  of  Nabonassar,  begin- 
ning with  the  era  b.c.  747,  and  having  Babylon 
as  its  capital,  would  beware  of  this  fatal  vice  ; 
but  the  last  of  this  second  line,  Belshazzar 
whose  fate  the  Hebrew  Daniel  records,  fell  be 
cause  he  "drank  wine"  in  the  "sacred  cups" 
(Dan.  vi.  3,  4,  23). 

The  Medes,  succeeding  to  the  Assyrian  or 
Babylonian  kingdom,  began  as  a  people  strictly 
abstinent  from  intoxicating  wine.  Their  de- 
generacy through  luxury  is  portrayed  by  Xeno- 


Abstinence  of  the  Persian  Cyrus,        97 

phon  in  his  "  Training  of  Cyrus,"  in  a  picture 
which  will  ever  be  quoted  as  a  gem  of  graphic 
sketching.  Young  Cyrus,  coming  from  his  Per- 
sian home  to  visit  his  grandfather,  Astyages, 
king  of  Medea,  came  to  have  a  mortal  aversion 
to  the  king's  cup-bearer,  because  of  his  office. 
The  king  remarking  upon.it,  Cyrus  proposed  to 
act  the  cup-bearer ;  and  with  a  napkin  on  his  shoul- 
der presented  the  cup  to  the  king  with  a  studied 
grace  that  charmed  the  fond  old  man.  When, 
however,  the  king  observ^ed  that  young  Cyrus 
did  not,  before  presenting  the  cup,  first  pour 
some  of  it  into  his  left-hand  and  taste  it — a  cus- 
tom rendered  necessary  as  a  safeguard  against 
attempts  at  assassination  by  poison  put  into  the 
king's  wine-cup  —  Astyages  said,  "  You  have 
omitted  one  essential  ceremony  ;  that  of  tasting." 
"  No,"  replied  Cyrus,  "  it  was  not  from  forgetting 
It  that  I  omitted  that  ceremony."  "  For  what, 
then,"  asked  Astyages, "  did  you  omit  it }  "  "  Be- 
cause," said  Cyrus,  "  I  thought  there  was  poison 
in  the  cup."  "  Poison,  child  ! "  cried  the  king ; 
"  how  could  you  think  so  ? "  "  Yes,  poison, 
grandfather ;  for  not  long  ago  at  a  banquet 
which  you  gave  to  your  courtiers,  after  the 
guests  had  drunk  a  little  of  that  liquor,  I  noticed 
that  all  their  heads  were  turned ;  they  sang, 
shouted,  and  talked  they  did  not  know  what. 
Even  you  yourself  seemed  to  forget  that  you 


98  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

were  king  and  they  your  subjects;  and  when 
you  would  have  danced,- you  could  not  stand  on 
your  legs."  "  Why,"  asked  Astyages,  "  have  you 
never  seen  the  same  happen  to  your  father?" 
"  No,  never,"  said  Cyrus  (Cyrop.  B.  I). 

Who  could  have  supposed  that  this  same  Cy- 
rus would  himself  be  led  to  what  was  and  still 
is  called  temperate  use  of  wine,  and  have  led  the 
Persian  nation  into  a  habit  from  which  to  this 
day  they  have  not  even  as  Muhammedans  been 
redeemed  !  It  is  worthy  of  special  note  that  the 
very  point  of  the  English  controversy  between 
Dr.  F.  R.  Lees  and  Rev.  A.  M.  Wilson  turns 
on  the  early  abstinence  of  Cyrus  and  his  subse- 
quent yielding  to  the  seduction  inseparable  from 
high  position,  ease  and  luxury.  The  same  Xeno- 
phon  records  that  Cyrus  in  his  manhood  said  on 
a  long  march  to  his  officers :  "  Collect  wine 
enough  to  accustom  us  to  drink  only  water;  for 
most  of  the  way  is  destitute  of  wine.  That  we 
do  not,  therefore,  fall  into  diseases  by  being  left 
suddenly  without  wine,  let  us  begin  at  once  to 
drink  water  with  our  food  ;  after  each  meal  drink 
a  little  wine ;  diminish  the  quantity  we  drink 
after  eating  until  we  insensibly  become  water- 
drinkers  :  for  an  alteration  little  by  little  brings 
any  one  to  bear  a  total  change  "  (Cyrop.  vi.  2). 
Xenophon,  himself,  a  little  later  in  life,  encour- 
ages  his   troops   by  saying,  that  their  sobriety 


Asiatic  Reform  in  Wine-Drinking.      99 

made  them  an  overmatch  for  their  wine-drinking 
foes  (Cyrop.  vii.  5).  The  lesson  is  manifest. 
Herodotus  farther  states  that  Cyrus  by  strategy 
overcame  the  fierce  Massagetae  ;  enticing  the 
young  prince  and  his  officers,  at  a  banquet  given 
them,  to  drink  deeply,  while  he  and  his  generals 
only  pretended  to  drink  ;  and  then  attacking 
their  army  while  their  officers  were  intoxicated. 
This  unworthy  act  led  the  queen-mother  to  re- 
monstrate with  Cyrus  to  this  effect:  "When 
you  yourself  are  overcome  with  wine,  what  fol- 
lies do  you  not  commit !  By  penetrating 
your  bodies  it  makes  your  language  more 
insulting.  By  this  poison  you  have  con- 
quered my  son ;  and  not  by  your  skill  or  your 
bravery." 

The  culmination  of  this  same  vice  in  these 
three  successive  empires,  that  of  the  Persian 
reaching  its  climax  in  XerxeS  the  Great,  demon- 
strated the  need  of  reform  ;  and  doubtless  stimu- 
lated the  zeal  of  reformers  in  Central  Asia,  as  it 
had  the  Hebrew  prophets  in  Western  Asia. 
Indeed,  in  the  midst  of  this  era,  about  b.c.  713, 
Nahum  wrote  "  the  burden  of  Nineveh ;"  and 
gave  this  historic  fact  in  the  form  of  a  prophetic 
warning :  "  While  they  are  drugged  with  boiled 
wine  {sobe/i)  they  shall  be  devoured  as  stubble 
fully  dry"  (Nahum  i.  10). 


lOO         The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines, 

THE  AGE  OF  ASIATIC  REFORM  IN  WINE-DRINKING. 

Du  Perron,  the  French  explorer,  who  devoted 
his  life  to  seeking  throughout  India  for  the  writ- 
ings of  Zoroaster,  called  attention  a  century  ago 
to  the  fact  that  the  age  of  Zoroaster,  or  Zerdusht, 
in  Persia,  was  the  age  of  Confucius,  or  Confutsee, 
in  China,  of  Daniel  at  Babylon,  and  of  Pheri- 
cydes,  the  Greek  instructor  of  Pythagoras.  This 
historic  coincidence  is  certainly  indicative  of  a 
wide-spread  and  deeply-felt  Asiatic  need ;  suggest- 
ing to  many  the  personal  association  or  corre- 
spondence of  these  great  reformers ;  suggestive 
certainly  of  a  principle  all  the  deeper  in  human 
nature,  if  there  were  no  association  between 
them. 

Zoroaster,  of  Brahminic  origin,  after  a  vain 
effort  to  resist  the  degeneracy  of  his  own  caste, 
left  his  home,  went  north  to  Persia,  and  there 
exerted  an  influence  which  the  Persians  have 
felt  to  this  day.  He  sought  especially  to  bring 
that  people  back  to  the  abstemious  life  of  their 
own  ancestry  and  of  his  caste.  A  leading  maxim 
with  him  was,  "  Temperance  is  the  strength  of 
the  mind;  man  is  dead  in  the  intoxication  of 
wine." 

Phericydes,  the  teacher  of  Pythagoras,  educated 
at  this  era,  in  the  East  and  in  Egypt,  sought 
to  secure  in  Greece  a  reform  in  habits  of  luxury 


Roman  Abstinence  from  Wine.        loi 

His  effort  became  effective  in  iiis  pupil ;  who  in 
the  same  school  learned  the  law  of  abstinence 
and  transferred  it  to  Italy,  where  he  established 
his  school.  Numa,  the  moral  legislator,  whose 
influence  ruled  the  early  Romans,  and  was  revived 
and  perpetuated  in  the  Republic,  was,  as  Plutarch 
says,  called  a  Pythagorean,  though  his  age  pre- 
ceded that  of  Pythagoras  at  least  a  century.  Of 
this  age,  Pliny  (Nat.  Hist.,  B.  XIV.  c.  13-21) 
speaks  in  strong  commendation.  He  quotes 
Numa's  law,  that  "wine  should  not  be  used  in 
libations  to  the  one  spiritual  god,  nor  in  sprink- 
ling, as  a  religious  act,  the  graves  of  ancestry." 
He  states  as  a  reason  for  this  provision,  "  since 
it  (abstinence  from  wine)  is  in  keeping  with 
(constat)  a  religious  life,  to  offer  wine  to  gods 
was  held  impious."  Hence  he  adds:  "The  Ro- 
mans for  a  long  time  used  wine  sparingly ; "  and 
"  It  was  forbidden  to  woman."  Again  he  adds : 
"  The  wines  of  the  early  ages  were  employed  as 
medicine  ;  "  and  again,  "  wine  began  to  be  author- 
ized in  the  six-hundredth  year  of  the  city  (about 
B.  c.  153)."  To  this  have  been  opposed  Plu- 
tarch's two  statements  in  the  life  of  Numa.  "  His 

sacrifices,  also,  were  like  the  Pythagorean 

consisting  chiefly  of  flour,  libations  of  wine  and 
other  very  simple  and  inexpensive  things  ; "  and 
the  corresponding  mention,  "  some  of  Numa's 
precepts  have  a  concealed  meaning ;  as,  not  to 


I02  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines, 

offer  the  gods  wine  proceeding  from  a  vine  un* 
pruned  ;  nor  to  sacrifice  without  meal."  State- 
ments in  immediate  connection  indicate  a  har 
mony  between  Plutarch  and  Pliny,  and  confirm 
the  wondrous  effort  of  reform  attempted  by 
Numa.  The  Romans  proper  were  like  the 
Brahmins  in  India,  a  small  but  ruling  caste.  The 
Romans  at  Numa's  day,  like  the  Brahmins,  had 
no  other  deity  than  the  one  spiritual  god ;  and 
Numa's  law  forbade,  as  a  matter  of  religious  con- 
sistency, the  use  of  wine  as  a  beverage  or  as  a 
libation.  For  the  idolatrous  and  somewhat  inde- 
pendent tribes  held  in  subjection  by  the  Romans, 
who  worshiped  other  deities,  his  law  required 
"  simple  "  offerings ;  especially  the  simplest  prod- 
uct of  the  vineyard  and  of  the  wheat-field. 

In  the  midst  of  these  efforts  at  moral  reform, 
extending  from  China  in  Eastern  Asia  to  Rome 
in  Southern  Europe,  the  Hebrew  people,  forced 
into  Babylonia  as  exiles,  exerted,  at  least  through 
their  prophets,  a  new  and  wide-spread  influence. 
During  this  age  three  out  of  four  of  the  prophets 
styled  "  greater,"  and  six  out  of  twelve  of  the 
"  minor "  prophets  wrote  ;  while,  moreover,  the 
histories  and  chronicles  of  the  nation,  extending 
from  Saul,  the  first  king,  to  Nehemiah,  a  governor 
living  a  century  after  their  return  from  captivity 
were  all  written.  During  this  age  the  intoxicat- 
ing ^m&,  yayin,  is  always  mentioned  with  con- 


Later  Hebrew  Abstinence.  103 

demnation ;  the  unfermented  tirosh  is  frequently 
mentioned,  and  with  commendation  ;  while  two 
other  products  of  the  vine,  as  before  mentioned, 
are  brought  to  notice. 

The  condemnation  of  wine  by  the  leading 
prophets  is  universal  Jeremiah  pictures  "the 
man  whom  wine  hath  overcome  "  (xxiii.  9),  and 
"  nations  drunk  with  wine  "  (li.  7).  Ezekiel  re- 
produces the  law  "  neither  shall  any  priest  drink 
wine"  (xliv.  21).  Zechariah  declares  that  the 
Israelites  in  their  moral  abandonment  at  Christ's 
coming  would  be  like  men  "drinking" to  drown 
sensibility,  who  "  make  a  noise  through  wine  " 
(ix.  15).  In  the  histories  then  written,  Jeremiah, 
the  compiler  of  the  books  called  Samuel  and 
the  Kings,  rehearses  the  record  as  to  David,  his 
sons,  and  the  future  monarchs  already  quoted ; 
and  Daniel  pictures  the  abandonment  of  the 
Assyrian  kings  through  wine.  Nehemiah,  cup- 
bearer at  the  Persian  court,  a  century  after  the 
day  of  Cyrus,  speaks  without  comment  of  the 
wine  of  the  Persian  court ;  he  alludes  to  the 
"  wines  of  all  sorts,"  especially  mentioning  the 
sweet  juice  of  the  grape  as  among  the  free-will 
offerings  sent  to  him  ;  but  he  declares  his  refusal 
to  receive  this  perquisite  of  "  wine  "  as  governor 
(ii.  T  ;  V.  15,  18  ;  viii.  10;  xiii.  15).  The  writer 
of  the  Book  of  Esther,  alluding  apparently  to  the 
voluptuous  Xerxes,  pictures  the  sensuality  and 


I04         The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

passion  displayed  at  the  Persian  "  feasts  of  wine  ; " 
citing  the  "  law,"  which  made  it  no  discourtesy 
for  any  one  to  decline  the  wine-cup  ;  a  law  whose 
very  existence  reveals  the  rule  of  conscience 
prompting  abstinence  among  Persian  princes 
(i.  7,  8,  lo;  vii.  7).  This  higher  law  of  absti- 
nence, ruling  among  the  young  men  who  were 
the  hope  of  Israel  in  this  dark  day,  is  set  forth 
in  colors  of  radiant  light  by  both  Jeremiah  and 
Daniel.  Jeremiah,  as  the  highest  type  of  virtue 
yet  lingering  in  Israel,  calls  out  the  Rechabites, 
and  in  the  most  public  manner  tests  their  con- 
stancy by  offering  them  wine  (xxxv.  2-14)  ;  and 
he  records  as  a  marked  fact  in  his  future  "  la- 
ment "  over  the  fall  of  Jerusalem,  that  during  its 
calamities,  "  her  Nazarites  were  purer  than  snow, 
they  were  whiter  than  milk"  (iv.  7).  Daniel, 
during  the  same  age,  in  the  distant  land  of  cap- 
tivity, and  a  descendant  of  kings  that  had  been 
unfaithful,  is  a  resolute  leader  of  a  little  band  who 
courteously  yet  firmly  refused  to  drink  the  wine 
of  the  Babylonian  king  (i.  5-16).  The  allusion  in 
Psalm  civ.,  written  in  this  age,  a  statement  often 
perverted  because  the  contrast  is  overlooked,  is, 
from  the  fact  that  it  is  purely  incidental,  an  index 
to  the  impression  of  men  of  this  age  as  to  the  per- 
nicious influence  of  wine-drinking.  The  Psalmist 
representing  the  Creator  as  giving  fertility  to  the 
soil  so  that  man  can  "  bring  forth  food  "  out  of  it 


Later  Hebrew  Unintoxicating  Wines.    105 

and  citing  "wine,  oil, and  bread,"  as  the  three  chief 
products,  makes  this  contrast  between  the  first 
and  last  (civ.  15):  "  Wine  to  make  glad  the  heart 
of  man  ....  and  bread  to  strengthen  his  heart." 
The  word  samah,  rendered  "  merry  "  usually,  is 
sometimes,  especially  in  Solomon's  writings,  used 
in  an  ambiguous  or  double  sense,  as  Prov.  xv.  13  ; 
xvii.  5,  22  ;  but  in  the  writers  of  the  later  age  it 
is  used  chiefly  in  a  bad  sense,  as  Esther  v.  9,  14. 
The  gift  of  wine  in  this  representation  of  the 
Psalmist  of  the  captivity  is  to  be  explained  by 
the  convictions  of  the  men  of  that  age,  such  as 
Daniel  and  Jeremiah.  In  their  view,  wine,  as 
the  Psalmist  states,  produces  unhealthful  exhil- 
aration, while  bread  gives  healthful  "  strength," 
the  Psalmist's  statement  being  in  harmony  with 
essential  truth,  as  well  as  with  the  conviction  ol 
his  age. 

Meanwhile,  in  this  age,  tirosh,  unfermented 
wine,  and  mesak,  diluted  wine,  again  appear  as 
antidotes  against  the  use  of  intoxicating  wines. 
Zechariah  puts  the  healthful  tirosh,  "  new  wine," 
which  maidens  at  the  Messiah's  coming  will  par- 
take, into  direct  contrast  with  the  yayin,  or  in- 
toxicating "  wine,"  which  "  noisy  "  brawlers  will 
drink  (ix.  15,  17).  Haggai  mentions  it  among 
the  simple  natural  products  of  the  land  of  Israel 
in  the  latter  day  (i.  11).  Jeremiah,  as  the  com- 
piler of  the  Kings,  and  Ezra  of  the  Chronicles 
5* 


io6  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines, 

mention  tirosh  as  an  article  to  which  there  is 
a  return  after  reformation  under  Hezekiah  and 
Josiah  (2  Kings  xviii.  32  ;  2  Chron.  xxxi.  5  ; 
xxxii.  28)  ;  and  Nehemiah  cites  it  in  almost  every 
allusion  to  the  products  of  the  field,  as  if  the  re- 
turn from  their  captivity  brought  a  return  among 
the  Israelites  to  the  use  of  simple  unfermented 
wine  (Nehemiah  v.  1 1  ;  x.  2^'],  39  ;  xiii.  5,  12). 

THE    LAWS    OF    WINE    OBSERVED    BY  THE    GREEKS. 

Aristotle,  the  crown-prince  in  the  galaxy  of 
Greek  thinkers,  defined  philosophy  as  "  the  sci- 
ence of  sciences  and  the  art  of  arts."  There 
could  be  no  real  philosophy  of  wine-drinking 
until  science  had  exhausted  its  skill  in  compar- 
ing the  facts  as  to  the  effects  of  wines ;  nor 
until  art  had  culminated  in  its  efforts  to  counter- 
act the  insidious  and  deadly  poison  in  fermented 
wines.  Among  the  Greeks,  centuries  before  the 
age  of  the  philosophers,  poets  had  pictured  wine- 
drinking  as  one  of  the  vices  of  men  ;  and  histori- 
ans had  recorded  their  effects  on  society.  Homer, 
writing  of  the  Greeks  who  lived  eleven  centuries 
before  Christ,  alludes  to  wines  of  various  colors 
and  characters.  The  gods  drank  "  nectar,"  but 
"  drink  no  ruddy  wine."  The  nature  of  the 
Greek  "  nektar  "  as  distinct  from  "  oinos  "  seems 
to  be  like  that  of  the  Hebrew  '  tirjsh  "  as  distinct 
from  "  yayin."    That  it  was  made  like  wine  from 


Greek  Poets  on  Wines.  107 

the  juice  of  the  grape,  Homer  indicates  by  de- 
scribing it,  as  "red  Hke  wine"  (Iliad  xix.  38;  Odys- 
sey, V.  93).  That  nektar  was,  like  "  tirosh,"  derived 
from  the  strained,  sugary  ingredient  of  the  fresh 
pressed  grape,  is  indicated  by  its  special  sweet- 
ness, and  more  by  Homer's  designation  (Odyssey 
ix.  359), "  nektaros  aporrox,"  or  extract  of  the 
burst  grape  ;  "  aporrox  "  being  a  compound  of 
the  Greek  preposition  "  apo,"  from,  and  the  word 
'  rox,"  used  by  the  Greek  translators  to  designate 
*  tirosh  "  in  Isa.  Ixv.  8.  That  it  was  specially 
healthful,  preservative  of  the  bodily  tissues  as 
opposed  to  fermented  wines,  which  the  Greeks 
had  learned  were  destructive  of  health,  is  indica- 
ted by  the  general  statement  that  the  drinking  of 
nektar  gave  immortality  to  both  gods  and  men ; 
while,  also,  we  have  the  special  statement  of 
Homer  that  Thebis  bathed  the  corpse  of  Patro- 
clus  in  nektar  to  preserve  it  from  decay  (Iliad 
xix.  38).  Hector,  the  Trojan  champion,  remon- 
strates with  his  mother  for  oflfering  him  wine, 
lest  it  should  "rob  him  of  both  strength  and 
courage."  The  Greek  heroes  drank  "  diluted 
wine  "  only  ;  from  the  "  same  urn  "  of  "  diluted 
wine,"  drinking  themselves  and  pouring  out 
"  libations  to  the  gods."  (See  Iliad  i.  598  ;  ii.  128  ; 
iii.  391  ;  iv.  3,207  ;  vi.  266  ;  xix.  38,  etc.)  In  the 
poem  of  his  old  age,  the  Odyssey,  Homer  pictures 
the  sage  as  obtaining  from  Maron,  a  priest  of 


io8         The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

Apollo,  a  "  sweet  (edus)  wine,"  which  needed 
when  drunk,  to  have  twenty  parts  of  water  added 
which  wine  given  to  the  Cyclops,  Polyphemus 
had  a  soporific  rather  than  an  intoxicating 
effect ;  as  the  milk  of  Jael  put  Sisera  to  sleep. 
The  reasonings  of  Trojans  and  of  Greeks,  ol 
Hecuba,  Hector  and  of  sage  Ulysses,  wrought  by 
the  poet  into  his  sketches,  show  that  at  this 
early  day  the  common  reason  and  conscience  ot 
observing  men  was  quick  and  imperative  as  to 
the  use  of  wine  by  men  who  sought  to  be  all  for 
which  they  were  made ;  while  reverence  for  the 
Divine  Being  led  the  earliest  Greeks  to  a  resort 
in  the  religious  employ  of  wine  which  is  control- 
ling to  this  day  among  Christian  Greeks.  It  had 
led  to  the  invention  of  an  unintoxicating  product 
■'f  the  grape ;  as  among  the  Asiatic  patriarchs. 

In  the  period  between  the  early  epic  poets  and 
the  later  philosophers,  the  historians  and  dramatic 
poets  add  much  to  show  the  history  of  Greek 
opinion  as  to  wines.  Herodotus  (vi.  84)  says 
that  among  the  Spartans,  trained  to  abstinence, 
it  was  believed  that  the  "madness  of  Cleomenes," 
which  led  to  their  reverses,  was  due  to  the  fact 
that  their  leader,  through  seduction  of  the  Scy- 
thians, formed  the  habit  of  drinking  "  undiluted 
wine." 

The  testimony  of  Herodotus  confirms  the  fact 
important  in  subsequent  history,  that  the  meli,  or 


Greek  Physicians  on  Wines.  109 

honey  of  the  early  Greeks,  was,  like  the  debsh  of 
the  Hebrews,  a  syrup  made  from  grapes  and 
other  juicy  fruits.  Thus,  among  the  Babylonians 
on  the  Euphrates,  he  says  (i.  193)  that,  of  the 
fruit  of  the  palm  "  they  make  bread,  wine,  and 
honey."  Again,  of  honey  among  the  Lybians  on 
the  Nile,  he  relates  (iv.  194):  "Amongst  them 
bees  make  a  great  quantity ;  and  it  is  said  that  the 
confectioners  make  much  more."  The  meaning 
of  the  Greek  meli,  and  of  the  Syrian  debsh,  is 
found  in  the  "  meli  agrion,"  or  "  wild  honey  "  of 
the  Greek  translation  of  the  Old  Testament  (see 
Gen.  xliii.  1 1  ;  Judges  xiv.  8)  ;  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment (Mat.  iii.  4 ;  Mark  i.  6),  and  of  Roman 
writers  such  as  Diodorus  (xix.  94). 

iEschylus  in  his  Eumenides  (v.  108)  alludes 
to  "  oblations  without  wine,  unintoxicating  pro- 
pitiatory offerings ;  "  showing  the  depth  and  per- 
manence of  the  Greek  sentiment  which  forbid 
the  use  of  intoxicating  wines  in  religious  rites. 
Sophocles,  to  the  same  eifect,  in  his  CEdipus  Co- 
longeus,  commends  his  prayer  to  the  avenging 
furies,  by  the  mention,  "  I,  abstemious,  come  to 
you  who  abstain  from  wine  ; "  thus  implying  that 
the  vengeance  they  wreaked  would  be  unjustifi- 
able if  either  he  who  asked  for  it,  or  they  who  in- 
flicted it,  were  excited  by  wine ;  a  sentiment 
emphasized  by  the  chorus  (v.  481),  who  warn 
CEdipus  that  he  bring  only  oblations  of  honey,  oj 


I  lo         The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines, 

grape-syrup,  and  offer  no  "  inebriating  beverage  " 
(methu).  This  profound  sentiment  of  the  tragic 
poets  is  thrown  into  stronger  relief  by  the  half 
sincere,  half  censorious  cavils  of  Aristophanes, 
the  comic  poet ;  as  when  in  his  "  Acharnanians  " 
he  represents  the  guests  as  saying,  "we  drank 
against  our  will  ....  sweet  undiluted  wine," 
when  in  another  place  he  pretends  to  ridicule 
the  women  who  "  swear  over  the  cup  to  put  no 
wine  in  it,"  because  "  they  like  their  own  undi- 
luted ; "  and  when,  yet  again,  he  makes  an  ine- 
briated young  Athenian  say  (Lysist.  v.  1228), 
"  When  we  are  abstinent  we  are  not  in  vigor." 

The  testimony  of  the  great  Greek  physician  of 
his  age,  Hippocrates,  is  specially  noteworthy.  In 
his  "Aphorisms,"  so  permanently  valuable  in 
their  correct  analysis  that  they  are  still  published 
as  a  pocket  companion  for  French  medical  stu- 
dents, are  numberless  suggestions  as  to  the  value 
of  abstemiousness  in  a  variety  of  diseases ;  while 
the  suggestion  of  the  use  of  wine  (Aph.  vii.  48) 
in  a  single  instance  leads  to  an  important  prin- 
ciple. The  direction  is :  "  Strangury  and  reten- 
tion of  urine  stupefaction  and  blood-letting  re- 
lieve." The  Greek  thorexis  (Latin  translation 
vini  potus)  indicates  that  an  anesthetic,  essential 
in  such  a  painful  disease,  was  sought  by  the 
Greeks  in  stupefying  alcoholic  drinks.  In  his 
"  Diate  Oxeon,"  or  Treatment  of  Acute  Diseases 


Greek  Philosophers  on  Wines,         1 1 1 

Hippocrates' prescriptions  of  various  products  of 
the  vine  have  called  forth  criticism  in  every  suc- 
ceeding age.  He  minutely  describes  symptoms 
in  fever  which  may  determine  when  "  sweet, 
strong,  or  black  wines,  and  when  hydromel 
(honey  and  water),  or  oxymel  (honey  and  vine- 
gar), should  be  given."  He  says,  "  The  sweet 
affects  the  head  less,  attacking  the  brain  more 
feebly ;  while  it  evacuates  the  bowels  more,"  a 
fact  made  noteworthy  in  the  statements  of  Ro- 
man and  Rabbinic  writers  of  later  date.  He  says 
again,  "  There  is  a  difference  as  to  their  nutritive 
powers  between  undiluted  wine  and  undiluted 
honey  (or  syrup)."  "  If  a  man  drink  double  the 
quantity  of  pure  wine,"  he  will  find  himself  no 
more  strengthened  than  from  half  the  same  quan- 
tity of  "  honey."  Both  the  hygienic  and  nutri- 
tive effects  of  unintoxicating  and  of  intoxicating 
products  of  the  vine  thus  brought  into  contrast 
by  Hippocrates,  are  discussed  by  his  Grecian, 
Roman  and  mediaeval  commentators,  Alexander 
Trallienus  says,  that  as  the  "  use  of  wine ''  is 
"  attended  with  certain  evil  consequences  ....  it 
is  the  part  of  a  prudent  physician  to  weigh  their 
good  and  bad  effects."  Athenseus  quotes  the 
following  as  a  further  direction  of  the  great  Greek 
physician:  "  Take  syrupy-wine,  (glukun,  distinct 
from  oinon  ediui),  either  mixed  with  water  or 
heated,  especially  that  called  protropos,  the  sweet 


112  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines, 

Lesbian ;  for,  the  syrupy  sweet  wine  (glukazon 
oinos)  does  not  oppress  the  head  and  affect  the 
mind,  but  passes  through  the  bowels  more  easily 
than  sweet  wine  "  (oinou  edeos).  The  distinc- 
tion between  the  terms  glukus  and  edus,  as 
applied  by  the  Greeks  to  wines,  is  here  manifest. 
Prot7'opos,  or  prodromos,  as  Dioscorides,  the 
great  botanist  of  a  later  age,  explains,  is  the  pre- 
mature oozing  juice  which  bursts  the  grape  skin 
and  flows  out  spontaneously ;  a  product  com- 
posed almost  entirely  of  the  saccharine  or  unfer- 
menting,  as  distinct  from  the  albuminous  oi 
fermenting  portion  of  the  grape-juice. 

THE  LAW  OF   WINES  AS    DISCUSSED  IN  GREEK 
PHILOSOPHY. 

Among  the  leaders  in  the  now  prepared  age 
of  philosophy,  Socrates  the  moralist,  Democritus 
the  materialist,  Plato  the  idealist,  and  Aristotle 
the  practical  logician,  are  prominent.  Xenophon 
in  his  Banquet  (ii.  14-16)  puts  into  the  lips  of 
Socrates  this  comprehensive  statement :  "  I  too, 
my  friends,  should  be  agreeably  affected  by  drink- 
ing ;  as  the  mandragora  puts  men  to  sleep,  and 

as  oil  feeds  flame If  we,  in  like  manner, 

pour  into  ourselves  drink  in  too  great  quantities 
our  bodies  and  minds  will  soon  become  power- 
less, and  we  shall  be  scarcely  able  to  breathe, 
much  less  to  articulate  anything.     But,  if  our 


spartan  Law  against  Wine-Drinking.   113 

servants  refresh  us  from  time  to  time  with  small 
cups  ....  then,  not  being  forced  to  become  in- 
toxicated with  wine, ....  we  shall  arrive  at  more 
agreeable  mirth."  Two  facts  are  to  be  observed  in 
this  statement.  First,  Socrates  here,  as  was  his 
wont,  teaches  a  principle  by  appealing  to  its 
influence  when  uncontrolled ;  and  second,  he 
alludes  to  the  degrading  idea  that  a  wise  man 
must  be  guarded  by  "  servants,"  having  no  self- 
control,  when  "  athletes"  can  restrain  themselves 
and  never  touch  wine. 

The  spirit  of  Democritus,  the  materialist,  is  in- 
dicated by  Pliny  (Nat.  Hist.  xiv.  2)  in  his  scath- 
ing irony  on  the  pride  of  this  philosopher  in 
"  professing  to  know  all  the  kinds  of  wines  in 
Greece,"  as  if  this  were  a  triumph  of  science. 

The  reasoning  of  Plato,  the  idealist,  as  to  wine, 
though  alluded  to  elsewhere,  is  chiefly  found  in 
his  Laws.  In  this  lengthy  dialogue  there  are  three 
chief  speakers ;  first  a  Cretan,  from  the  isle  where 
Minos  made  the  first  collection  recognized  as 
natural  law  by  the  Greeks ;  second,  a  Spartan, 
wedded  to  the  stern  military  code  of  Lycurgus  ; 
and  third,  an  Athenian,  representing  the  repub- 
lican city  where  at  an  early  day  the  philosophic 
code  of  Solon  was  elaborated,  from  which  the 
Roman  civil  code  derived  its  first  germs.  The 
Cretan  is  the  inquirer,  drawing  out  the  advo- 
cates of  the  two  extremes ;  the  rigid  discipline  of 


114  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

Spartan  military  regimen ;  and  the  free  spirit  of 
personal  indulgence,  spurning  restraint,  which  at 
Athens  made  liberty  lead  on  to  license.  The  law 
as  to  drinking  intoxicating  wine  is  the  first  dis- 
cussed, occupying  two  whole  evenings.  It  has 
this  prominence,  because  on  the  one  side  it  is 
urged  that  laws  restraining  the  use  of  wine  are 
sumptuary  laws,  infringing  on  individual  freedom  ; 
while,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  urged  that  these  are 
civil  statutes  proper,  because  they  are  essential 
to  protect  families  and  society  from  the  injury 
brought  by  intoxication.  The  Spartan  argues 
(Laws,  B.  I.,c.  ix):  "  The  laws  at  Sparta  relating 
to  sensual  indulgence  seem  to  me  to  be  laid  down 
most  beautifully  (kallista)  of  all.  For,  that  by 
which  men  fall  into  the  greatest  sensual  indul- 
gence, into  insulting  conduct,  and  into  all  kinds 
of  folly,  the  law  expels  from  our  whole  country. 
You  would  not  see  in  the  fields  or  in  the  cities 
over  which  the  Spartans  have  control,  banquets, 
or  any  of  their  attending  associations ;  which  as- 
sociations excite  by  their  inherent  influence  every 
kind  of  excess.  There  is  not  a  man,  who,  meet- 
ing with  a  person  reveling  in  intoxication,  would 
not  immediately  inflict  on  him  the  severest 
punishment.  Nor  would  he  let  the  party  go 
free,  pleading  as  an  excuse  a  Dionysiac  festival ; 
as  I  once  saw  was  the  case  with  your  people 
riding  in  carts    and   as,   indeed,  at  Laurentum, 


I 


Athenian  License  in  Wine- Drinking.    115 

among  our  colonists,  I  have  seen  the  whole  city 
intoxicated  during  the  Dionysiac  festival.  But 
with  us  there  is  nothing  of  the  kind."  The  point 
of  the  Spartan  allusion  to  the  Dionysiac  festival 
is  seen  in  the  fact  that  Bacchus,  or  Dionysios,  was 
the  reputed  introducer  of  wine-culture,  prob- 
ably from  India  and  Egypt,  into  Greece  ;  a  cult- 
ure at  first  a  blessing  when  Bacchus  taught 
syrup-making,  but  perverted  when  intoxicating 
wines  were  invented.  Hence  Bacchus  was  pict- 
ured in  early  Grecian  art  as  a  modest  youth  ;  but 
in  later  art  as  a  drunken,  half-naked  reveler. 
Hence,  too,  the  festivals  in  his  honor  were  at  first 
as  simple  as  the  Hebrew  feast  of  the  tabernacles 
held  at  grape-harvest ;  but  afterward  they  degen- 
erated into  scenes  of  the  most  beastly  and  un- 
seemly debauchery.  Hence,  farther,  the  Spartans 
permitted  these  festivals  only  that  their  occa- 
sional lessons  might  deter  their  youth  from 
touching  intoxicating  wine,  and  on  the  principle 
thus  stated  by  Plutarch  in  his  Lycurgus :  "  Some- 
times they  made  the  Helots  drink  till  they  were 
intoxicated,  and  in  that  condition  led  them  into 
the  public  halls  to  show  the  young  men  what 
drunkenness  was."  On  the  same  principle  the 
"  ethical  "  painters,  as  Aristotle  calls  them,  pict- 
ured Bacchus  in  his  beastly  drunkenness  and 
nakedness  to  shock  the  sense  of  decency  and 
of  virtue  in  ingenuous  youth. 


ii6         The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

I'he  Athenian  has  now  his  argument,  occu- 
pying two  entire  books  of  the  twelve,  and  draw- 
ing the  Cretan  as  well  as  the  Spartan  into  sharp 
debate.  The  Athenian  has  beforehand  stated 
the  question  at  issue  to  be  this :  not  "  whether 
a  person  finds  fault  rightly  or  not  with  the  La- 
conian  or  Cretan  polity  ?  "  but  whether  legislators 
"  shall  permit  any  youth  to  inquire  which  laws 
are  well  or  ill  established  ?  "  not  silencing  inquiry 
by  the  arbitrary  dogma  "  that  they  are  all  beauti- 
fully laid  down,  since  the  gods  were  the  parties 
who  gave  them  "  (I.  7).  Ruling  out  all  question 
as  to  "  drinking  to  intoxication,"  which  excess 
(as  all  agree)  law  must  repress  (I.  9),  he  argues 
that  "  discipline "  in  any  special  pursuit,  as  for 
war,  in  which  abstinence  is  rei[uisite,  tends  to 
undue  aspiration  for  superiority,  which  injures 
society  at  large  (I.  10,  11).  "Instruction"  of 
the  mind,  often  repressed  by  mere  "  discipline," 
calls  for  "association"  in  which  the  effects  of 
drinking  may  be  learned  "by  experience;"  an 
idea  familiar  to  the  Athenians,  "  fond  of  debate," 
though  less  appreciated  by  Lacedemonians,  noted 
for  "brevity  of  speech,"  and  by  Cretans,  for 
'•abundance  in  thought  rather  than  in  words" 
(I.  12,  13).  "Reason  says,"  that  to  allow  the 
impulses,  higher  and  lower,  of  a  man's  nature 
their  conflict,  till  each  man  decides  which  should 
rule,  "is  the  golden  and  sacred  contest  of  the 


Athenian  License  in  Wine-Drinking.  117 

reasoning  power  which  is  called  the  common 
law  of  the  State."  "  Passing  one's  time  in  drink- 
ing" is  "too  despicable  to  be  considered."  But 
it  is  only  when  the  "  pleasure  "  of  the  first  cup  is 
followed  by  dread  and  misery,  that  positive  tem- 
perance is  learned ;  for  "  how  will  any  one  be 
perfectly  temperate  who  has  not  fought  with 
and  overcome  by  reason,  and  effort,  and  art,  in 
sport  and  in  earnest,  many  sensual  indulgences 
and  lusts,  that  urge  him  to  act  with  shameless- 
ness  and  wrong."  There  comes,  indeed,  the  ques- 
tion whether  one  should  test  himself  in  "  solitude," 
or  "  in  the  company  of  many  fellow-drinkers  ; ' 
among  whom  he  might  fail  "  before  reaching  the 
last  drink  that  he  could  bear  without  intoxica- 
tion" (I.  13,  15). 

The  first  sitting  thus  ended,  the  second  is  taken 
up  with  an  application  of  this  principle  to  the 
'  education  "  of  the  young ;  education  having  as 
its  office  "  the  drawing  and  leading  of  youth  to 
that  which  has  been  called  by  the  law  '  right  rea- 
son,' and  which  has  been  decreed  by  the  most 
reasonable  and  oldest  men  through  their  expe- 
rience." Here  arises  the  question  how  "  youth 
may  be  accustomed  not  to  feel  joy  or  sorrow 
in  things  contrary  to  the  law"  (II.  1-5).  The 
laws  relating  to  the  parallel  excitements  of 
the  dance  and  of  the  theater  are  associated 
always  in  legislation  with  wine-drinking ;  since 


1 1 8         The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

they  are  mutually  seductive  to  youth  (II.  5-8). 
The  conclusion  to  which  even  the  speculative 
Athenian  is  obliged  to  come  is  thus  stated : 
"  Shall  we  not  lay  down  a  law,  in  the  first  place, 
that  boys  shall  not  taste  wine  at  all  until  they 
are  eighteen  years  of  age ;  teaching  them  that  it 
is  not  proper  by  a  funnel  to  bring  fire  to  ruin  the 
body  and  soul  before  they  are  prepared  to  put 
forth  efforts  to  resist ;  thus  exercising  caution 
against  the  inflammable  nature  of  young  persons, 
afterward,  indeed,  to  taste  wine  in  moderation 
until  they  are  thirty  years  old,  though  a  young 
man  is  by  all  means  to  keep  himself  from  intox- 
ication and  much  wine  ;  on  reaching  forty  years, 
to  indulge  freely  in  convivial  meetings  called  for 
the  worship  of  the  other  gods ;  later  still,  to  in- 
vite Dionysios  to  the  mystic  rites  and  sports  of 
old  men,  in  which  he  kindly  bestowed  wine  upon 
man  as  a  remedy  to  the  austerity  of  old  age." 
The  tendency  of  this  reasoning,  at  which  Soc- 
rates is  not  present,  which  forms  a  part  of  the 
legislation  proposed  for  Plato's  ideal  Republic, 
where  community  of  goods  and  of  wives  is  ad- 
vocated— -a  legislation  which  certainly  is  as  arbi- 
trary as  the  Spartan,  and  utterly  opposed  to  the 
natural  law  of  the  Creator — nerds  no  comment 
in  this  day,  as  it  fell  powerless  on  the  minds  of 
the  Greeks  and  of  all  other  people  that  have  ad- 
mired, yet  shunned,   Plato's  speculative  dream. 


f 


Athenian  Laws  as  to  Wine- Drinking.   119 

We  do  not  wonder  that,  pushed  still  by  the 
Spartan  and  Cretan, the  Athenian  " law-dreamer" 
admits  that  legislation  as  to  intoxicating  drink 
is  not  a  sumptuary  law  ;  for  mere  "  agreeableness 
in  food  and  drink "  constitutes  sensual  indul- 
gence, while  their  contributing  to  health  and  the 
welfare  of  men  is  "  rectitude  and  virtue  "  (II.  10). 
He  admits  that  "  there  ought  to  be  laws  as  to 
convivial  drinking,"  restraining  the  man  "  who 
has  become  too  confident,  bold,  and  over-impu- 
dent, and  unwilling  to  endure  a  regulation ; " 
that  "  leaders "  in  society  must  be  abstemious, 
since  it  requires  "  sober  leaders  "  to  "  fight  against 
drunkenness;"  he  allows  that  there  is  force  in 
the  tradition  that  Juno  avenged  herself  on  "  Jupi- 
ter's bastard  son,  Dionysios,  by  making  him  in- 
sane, and  that  he,  again,  to  avenge  himself,  intro- 
duced the  Bacchanalian  rites,  and  the  whole  of 
its  mad  choir ;  for  which  reason,  also,  {i.  e.,  in 
fiendish  revenge)  he  gave  wine  to  man."  He 
accords  that  wine-drinking  "  is  an  evil ; "  and  yet 
it  is  not  thence  to  be  concluded  that  it  is  to  be 
excluded  as  "  unworthy  of  the  State."  He  ad- 
mits farther,  that  if  legislation  on  wine-drinking 
takes  a  lower  character  than  this  ideal,  namely, 
"  that  men  may  learn  virtue  by  experience,"  if  it 
were  proposed  that  "  it  shall  be  lawful  for  any 
one  to  drink  both  when  he  pleases  and  with 
whom  he  pleases,  and  in  connection  with  any 


I20         The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wijzes* 

pursuit  whatever,  I  would  not  give  my  vote  in 
this  manner."  Opposing  still  the  prohibitory- 
laws  of  the  Cretans  and  Spartans,  he  would  sanc- 
tion enactments  to  the  following  effect :  "  That 
no  one,  when  in  camp,  is  to  taste  of  that  drink, 
but  to  subsist  upon  water  during  all  that  period  ; 
that  in  the  city  neither  a  male  nor  female  slave 
should  ever  taste  it ;  nor  should  magistrates  dur- 
ing the  year  of  their  office  ;  nor  pilots  and  judges, 
when  engaged  in  their  official  business ;  nor  any 
one  who  goes  to  any  council  to  deliberate  upon 
any  matter  of  moment ; "  and  he  adds,  what  de- 
serves a  place  in  modern  thought,  "  when  think- 
ing of  begetting  children."  He  farther  adds,  in 
conclusion :  "  Many  other  cases  a  person  might 
mention  in  which  wine  ought  not  to  be  drunk 
by  those  who  possess  mind  and  share  in  framing 
laws ;  so  that,  according  to  this  reasoning,  there 
is  to  no  state  any  need  of  many  vineyards ;  but 
other  kinds  of  agriculture  should  be  required  by 
law,  and  those  providing  every  article  of  diet." 
Certainly  this  view  of  the  field  of  legislation  is 
wondrously  instructive  to  all  later  ages  and  na- 
tions. For,  the  only  really  debatable  question, 
according  to  Plato's  Athenian,  is  whether  it 
is  wise  to  train  mature  men  to  see  how  much 
they  can  drink  and  yet  resist  intoxication.  It 
would  be  strange  if  this  dream  should  be  deemed 
a   guide  in   any  modern   community,  when  it 


Aristotle  s  Science  as  to  Wines.        121 

never  commended  itself  to  the  ancient  Grecian 
community,  who  only  listened  to  Plato  as  a  sug- 
gestive though  fanciful  dreamer.  The  last  sug- 
gestion, like  that  of  community  of  goods  and  of 
wives,  in  Plato's  Republic,  enacts  the  most  arbi- 
trary of  sumptuary  laws,  the  arbitrary  control 
over  the  crops  each  man  may  raise ;  a  commu- 
nistic regulation. 

Aristotle,  the  practical  as  well  as  logical  rea- 
soner,  profound  in  natural  science  as  well  as  in 
moral  philosophy,  presents  principles  which 
sometimes  directly  and  sometimes  indirectly 
apply  to  the  use  of  wine. 

In  his  "  Meteorics,"  from  whose  acute  analysis 
Sir  Wm.  Hamilton  drew  much  that  has  been  ac- 
counted as  his  own,  Aristotle  presents  some  of  the 
properties  of  wines,  which  are  special  guides  in 
deciding  important  questions  as  to  Christ's  teach- 
ings. Speaking  of  the  influence  of  heat  and  cold 
on  different  liquids,  he  distinguishes  between 
those  which,  like  water,  are  wholly  evaporated ; 
and  those  which,  like  milk,  are  resolved  into  two 
parts,  as  whey  and  curd  ;  and  those  vvhich  as  wine 
are  rendered  viscid  and  glutinous  ^IV.  3).  He 
says  (IV.  7),  "  There  is  a  certain  wine,  the  unfer- 
mented  gleukos,  which  may  be  both  congealed 
(pegnutai)  by  cold,  and  evaporated  (epsetai)  by 
heat."  Again  (IV.  8):  "Those  liquids  are  in- 
capable of  being  congealed  that  have  no  watery 
6 


122  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

element ;  as  honey  (meli)  compared  with  unfer- 
mented  wine  (gleukos)."  Again  he  says  (IV.  9) 
"  Wine,  indeed,  that  is  the  sweet  (ho  glukus) 
may  be  evaporated  (thumiatai),forit  is  glutinous 
(pion)  the  same  as  oil.  For,  it  is  not  congealed 
by  cold  and  is  inflammable.  In  name,  indeed,  it  is 
wine,  but  not  in  operation  (ergo) ;  for,  first,  its 
taste  is  not  wine-like  (oinodes)  ;  again,  for  this 
reason,  that  it  does  not  intoxicate  (methuskei)  ; 
which  is  the  effect  of  wine  generally."  This  cer- 
tainly settles  the  question  whether  the  Greek 
*'  gleukos "  is  an  inebriating  beverage,  if  the 
Greek  "  methuskei  "  be  taken,  as  often  the  En- 
glish term  "  drunk  "  is,  in  that  sense  ;  while  if  its 
generic  signification  of  "  gorge  "  be  in  Aristotle's 
thought,  the  distinction  between  "  gleukos  "  and 
wine  proper  is  established. 

In  his  "  Poetics  "  (XXV.  14),  Aristotle  con- 
demns the  poets  for  picturing  the  gods  as  indulg- 
ing in  wine,  even  though  their  representations  are 
only  figurative,  to  indicate  that  they  are  happy. 

In  his  "Ethics,"  in  which  he  treats  of  the 
moral  principles  which  are  the  foundation  of 
government  and  laws,  Aristotle  makes  "  temper- 
ance "  to  be  "  the  mean  "  between  abstemiousness 
and  indulgence ;  as  "  courage "  is  the  mean  be- 
tween cowardice  and  rashness ;  but  he  carefully 
distinguishes  between  the  partaking  of  healthful 
food  and  simple  drinks,  and  the  use  of  mere  lux- 


I 


Abstinence  Aristotle  s   Temperance.    123 

uries,  and  especially  of  intoxicating  beverages ; 
indicating  that  abstinence  from  such  indulgence 
is  temperance.  His  words  are,  "  By  abstaining 
from  sensual  indulgences  we  become  temperate; 
and,  when  we  have  become  so,  we  are  best  able 
to  abstain  from  them  ; "  a  double  principle  appli- 
cable to  moral  training  (B.  II.,  c.  ii.,  sect.  6,  7,8). 
He  admits  the  force  of  Plato's  reasoning,  in  part, 
as  to  education  ;  but  makes  these  profound  sug- 
gestions. There  are  three  classes  of  attainments 
important  in  education  :  the  honorable,  the  ex- 
pedient, the  pleasant ;  which  are  the  virtues 
severally  of  the  moral,  the  intellectual  and  the 
bodily  natures  in  man  ;  while  their  opposites,  to 
be  avoided,  are  the  dishonorable,  the  inexpedient 
and  the  unpleasant,  or  painful.  The  latter,  the 
training  to  "  bodily  virtue,"  is  to  be  specially  a 
matter  of  forcible  restraint  by  law ;  since  the 
impulse  to  sensual  indulgence  is  common  to  man 
and  animals,  and  must,  as  in  them,  be  restrained 
by  the  infliction  of  bodily  pain  ;  and,  also,  because 
we  "  make  pleasure  and  pain  the  rule  of  our 
action,"  and  because  "  it  is  more  difficult  to  resist 
the  impulse  to  sensual  pleasure  than  to  resist 
anger,"  which  is  a  moral  impulse.  In  view  of 
this  he  reaches  the  profound  conclusion :  "  He 
who  abstains  from  the  bodily  pleasures,  and  in 
this  very  thing  takes  pleasure,  is  the  temperate 
man  ;  but  he  who  feels  pain  at  it,  {i.  e.,  at  prac- 


124  The,  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines, 

ticin^    abstinence)    is    intemperate."      (II.    iil 

1-9). 

As  it  is  difficult  in  some  cases  to  find  the 
"  mean,"  which  constitutes  virtue,  Aristotle  gives 
these  significant  rules :  "  First,  keep  away  from 
that  extreme  most  contrary  or  dangerous  ; "  as 
Circe  advised  Ulysses  (Odys.  xii.  219)  in  steering 
between  Scylla  and  Chaiybdis.  "  Second  :  let  us 
consider  the  vice  to  which  we  are  most  inclined 
....  and  drag  ourselves  away  toward  the  opposite 
extreme  ....  as  people  do  with  crooked  sticks 
to  make  them  straight.  Third  :  let  us  be  most 
on  our  guard  against  what  is  pleasant,  and  pleas- 
urable ;  for  we  are  not  unbiased  judges  of  it. 
Just,  then,  as  the  Trojan  elders  felt  respecting 
Helen  (Iliad,  iii.  158),  must  we  feel  respecting 
pleasure  ;  and  in  all  cases  pronounce  sentence  as 
they  did  ;  for  thus,  by  sending  it  away,  we  shall 
be  less  likely  to  fall  into  error."  He  adds,  in 
conclusion  :  "  By  so  doing,  then,  to  speak  in  sum- 
mary, we  shall  be  able  to  hit  the  mean  "  (IL,  ix. 
3-5).  Absti?ience,  according  to  Aristotle,  then, 
is  temperance. 

Discussing  the  "  will "  as  an  element  of  virtue 
in  acts,  Aristotle  notes  a  principle  of  evil  in  the 
use  of  intoxicating  drink.  Stating  the  distinc- 
tion between  doing  wrong  "  through  ignorance," 
i.  e.,  when  there  is  no  means  of  knowing  what  law 
requires,  and  doing  wrong  "  with  ignorance,"  i,  e. 


Aristotle  on  Prohibitory  Laws,         125 

when  some  wrong  feeling  or  habit  blinds  a  man 
to  what  he  might  have  known  to  be  law,  he  illus- 
trates the  principle  thus :  "  He  who  is  under  the 
influence  of  drunkenness  does  not  seem  to  act 
through  ignorance ;  but,  under  the  influence  of 
one  of  the  motives  mentioned,  to  act,  not  know- 
ingly; or,  with  ignorance"  fill.,  i.  15). 

Comparing  intemperance  with  incontinency, 
or  licentiousness,  Aristotle  says :  "  The  former  is 
incurable,  the  latter  curable.  The  former,  as  a 
depravity,  resembles  dropsy  and  consumption, 
but  incontinency  resembles  epilepsy ;  for  the 
former  is  a  permanent,  and  the  latter  is  not  a  per- 
manent vice"  (VII.,  viii.  i).  Americans  have 
appreciated  Greek  wisdom  ;  and  this  suggestion 
deserves  thought.  Giving  an  entire  book  to  the 
consideration  whether  "  pleasure  "  is,  as  in  the 
Epicurean  philosophy,  a  main  end  to  be  sought 
in  life,  Aristotle  urges  the  importance  of  this 
question  ;  since"  when  we  educate  the  young  we 
control  them "  by  an  appeal  to  motives  of 
"  pleasure  and  pain."  He  insists  that  "  it  is  of 
the  greatest  consequence  in  laying  the  founda- 
tion of  moral  character  that  men  should  learn  to 
take  delight  in  what  they  ought,  and  to  hate 
what  they  ought"  (X.,  i.  i,  2).  He  observes  that, 
"  The  impulsions  of  the  intellect  conflict  with  the 
Impulsions  of  the  senses;"  that  each  impulse  is 
increased  by  culture  ;  and'that  bodily  indulgences 


126         Th?  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines, 

come  to  interfere  with  intellectual  pleasures ;  as 
is  illustrated  by  "  persons  who  eat  sweetmeats  in 
the  theaters "  when  the  "  actors  are  bad,"  not 
appreciating  the  sentiment  of  the  drama  (X.,  v. 
1-7).  Returning  to  the  importance  of  "  right 
education  in  the  path  of  virtue  from  childhood," 
and  observing  that  "  to  live  temperately  and 
patiently  is  not  pleasant  to  the  majority,  and 
especially  to  the  young,"  he  argues:  "Therefore 
education  and  institutions  ought  to  be  regulated 
by  law  ;  for  they  will  not  be  painful  when  they 
have  become  familiar  "  (X.,  ix.  8).  As  a  justifi- 
cation of  the  requiring  by  law  "  abstinence  "  as 
essential  to  temperance,  he  says :  "  The  bad  man 
desires  sensual  pleasure,  and  is  corrected  by  pain, 
like  a  beast  of  burden.  Therefore  it  is  a  maxim 
that  the  pains  ought  to  be  such  as  are  most 
opposed  to  the  pleasures  that  are  loved."  He 
adds :  "  Legal  enactments  and  customs  have 
authority  in  states,  in  the  same  way  as  the  words 
of  a  father  and  customs  in  private  families  "  (X., 
ix.  10,  II,  16). 

In  his  "  Politics,"  in  which  moral  principles 
are  applied  to  government  and  laws,  Aristotle 
mentions  six  essential  provisions  in  a  state  on 
which  it  is  proper  to  legislate  ;  first,  food ;  second, 
mechanic  arts;  third,  arms  for  defense;  fourth 
revenue  to  maintain  law  ;  fifth,  religion ;  sixth, 
courts  of  law   (vii.  8).     Hence,  "  temples  "  and 


Aristotle  s  Physiology  of  Wine- Drinking.  127 

markets  with  "public  tables,"  i.  e.,  licensed  eating- 
houses,  are  alike  matters  for  legislation  (vii.  12). 
Again,  as  the  soul  of  man  has  two  parts — first, 
that  deriving  knowledge  through  the  senses  and 
influenced  by  fleshly  impulses,  and,  second,  rea- 
son, and  as  the  inferior  ought  to  be  ruled  by  the 
superior,  so  "  he  who  composes  a  body  of  laws 
ought  to  extend  his  legislation  to  everything " 
requisite  to  "  the  superior  nature  and  its  ends  ;  " 
the  Spartans,  erring  not  in  their  prohibitory  laws, 
but  in  constituting  the  State  with  laws  to  "  make 
war,  and  victory  the  end  of  government ; "  which 
laws  when  peace  came  were  overridden  by  the 
spirit  of  indulgence  (vii.  14).  He  adds:  "The 
body,  therefore,  demands  our  care  prior  to  the 
soul ;  the  appetites  for  the  sake  of  the  mind ;  the 
body  for  the  sake  of  the  soul  "  (vii.  15). 

Applying  these  precepts  to  education,  he  in- 
sists that  by  law  everything  exciting  sensual  im- 
pulses, "  the  pleasures  of  the  table,"  as  well  as 
"  obscene  stories,  and  pictures,  and  comedies," 
should  be  prohibited  ;  because  "  a  good  education 
will  preserve  youth  from  drunkenness,  and  from 
all  the  evils  that  attend  on  these  things "  (vii. 
17).  In  his  last  Book,  devoted  entirely  to  the 
two  parts  of  education  called  by  Plato  "  gym- 
nastic for  the  body  and  musical  for  the  soul," 
Aristotle  indicates,  as  does  Menu,  the  Brahmin, 
that  while  music  proper  may  be  perverted  from  its 


128         The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines, 

high  use,  the  theater,  the  dance,  and  the  wine-cup 
are,  as  Socrates  argued,  all  intoxicating  in  their 
very  nature,  and  he  notes  that  the  poets,  as  Eu- 
ripides (Bacch.  382),  have  made  this  distinction  ; 
calling  "wine  and  the  dance,"  in  a  different 
sense  from  music, "  killers  of  care  "  (viii.  5).  The 
extremest  of  modem  advocates  for  "  prohibition," 
as  distinct  from  and  opposed  to  "  licensing,"  were 
more  than  anticipated  by  the  profound  and  prac- 
tical Aristotle. 

In  his  "  Problems,"  Aristotle  alludes  to  the 
physiological  laws  of  the  action  of  intoxicating 
wines ;  some  of  which  are  specially  worthy  of 
modern  study.  His  suggestions  are  the  more 
weighty,  because,  like  Prof  Henry's  published 
lists  of  "  inquiries  "  for  observers  in  almost  every 
department  of  science,  they  hint  at  once  the 
points  to  be  observed,  the  methods  of  investiga- 
tion, and  often  the  possible  or  probable  solution  ; 
many  being  repeated,  with  one  or  more  sug- 
gested replies.  Among  the  outward  and  com- 
monly noticed  effects  of  wine  awakening  inquiry 
are  these :  Why  are  persons,  much  intoxicated, 
stupefied,  while  those  slightly  intoxicated  are  like 
madmen  ?  Why  do  men  stupefied  by  wine  fall 
on  their  backs,  while  men  crazed  by  wine  fall  on 
their  faces  ?  Why  are  wine-drinkerS  made  dizzy 
and  their  vision  affected  ?  Why  are  persons 
fond  of  sweet-wine    (glukun-oinon)    not  wine- 


Roman  Virtue  Demanding  Abstinence.  129 

bibbers  (oinophlyges)  or  overcome  by  wine  ? 
Among  hygienic  inquiries  are  these :  Why  are 
persons  given  to  wine  subject  to  chills,  to  pleu-. 
risy,  and  like  diseases?  Why  are  those  who 
drink  wine,  slightly  diluted,  subject  to  headaches, 
while  wine  much  diluted  produces  vomiting 
and  purging  ?  Why  do  those  who  drink  undi- 
luted wine  have  more  headache  next  day  than 
those  who  drink  diluted  wine  ?  Why  does  wine 
greatly  diluted  produce  vomiting,  while  wine 
alone  does  not  ?  Why  does  svveet  wine  counter- 
act the  effect  of  undiluted  wine?  Why  is  oil 
beneficial  in  intoxication  ?  To  the  latter  of 
these  inquiries  the  suggested  solution  is:  Be- 
cause oil  is  diuretic  and  prepares  the  body  for 
the  discharge  of  the  liquor. 

Theophrastus,  the  pupil  of  Aristotle,  who  wrote 
on  the  "  History  of  Plants,"  and  on  their  "  Effects," 
follows  up  the  teachings  of  his  master,  both  as  to 
the  hygienic  and  moral  influence  of  wines.  Thus 
he  compares  (Plut  Ait.  VI.,  xvii.  2)  the  effect  of 
"  myrrh  "  (smyrna),  of  honey-mixture,  and  of 
unfermcnted  wine  (glukos)  ;  declaring  the  former, 
in  the  case  mentioned,  preferable.  He  speaks 
also  in  his  "Ethical "  notes  of  the  moral  influence 
of  wine-drinking. 

These  minute  observations  of  the  great  thinker 
of  the  ages,  whose  logic  Sir  Wm.  Hamilton 
could  not  improve,  whose  discoveries  in  Natural 
6* 


130         The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines, 

History,  Agassiz.up  to  the  last  course  of  lectures 
he  delivered  at  Harvard  University,  declared  not 
only  anticipated  those  ascribed  to  himself,  but 
were  still  a  guide  to  new  explorers,  whose  ethics 
and  politics  are  the  very  foundations  on  which 
American  and  European  Constitutions  are  now 
made  to  rest — these  minute  observations  on  the 
"  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines  "  certainly  are  timely 
for  modern  consideration.  The  early  fall  of  Aris- 
totle's brilliant  pupil,  Alexander  the  Great,  simply 
from  wine-drinking,  is  a  demonstration  of  the 
correctness  of  the  philosopher's  deductions  from 
a  wide  range  of  observation. 

WINES,  INTOXICATING  AND  UNINTOXICATING,  IN 
THE  DECLINE  OF  GREECE  AND  THE  GRANDEUR 
OF  THE  ROMAN  REPUBLIC. 

In  no  respect,  mort  fully  than  in  its  influence 
on  wine-drinking,  did  the  declaration  of  Horace 
prove  true,  "  Grsecia  capta  ferum  victorem  ce« 
pit " — captured  Greece  took  captive  its  rude  vic- 
tor. When  Athens,  b.c.  148,  and  Corinth, 
B.C.  146,  were  conquered  by  Roman  armies, 
when  Aristotle's  library  was  among  the  most 
valuable  treasures  brought  to  Rome,  and  when 
three  most  eminent  leaders  in  the  Grecian 
schools  of  philosophy,  came  as  ambassadors  to 
Rome,  a  new  era  in  practical  wisdom  as  to  wine- 


Roman  ''Must*'  or  Unfermented  Wine.  131 

drinking,  as  well  as  in  other  customs,  dawned 
on  the  practical  Romans.      The  stern  victor  and 
the  politic  captive  found  their  common  affinities ; 
and  they  mutually  influenced  each  other  accord- 
ing to  these  affinities.     The  priceless  treasures 
of  Roman  and  Grecian  literature  in  that  age  af- 
ford the  richest  lessons  of  the  ages  for  the  culti- 
vation of  virtue  which  brings  social  prosperity. 
The  grand  old  Roman  integrity  displaying  itself 
in  Stoics  like  Cato  and  Seneca,  the  opposite  Epi- 
curean spirit  in   Horace  and  Athenaeus,  and  the 
middle-ground  statesman-like  reasonings  of  Cice- 
ro and  Plutarch,   gave  a  perfect  charm  to  the 
study,  in  any  point  of  view,  of  this  age.     The 
subject  of  wine-drinking  was  one  prominent  in 
thought  and  policy ;  and  the  fact  that  the  three 
tendencies  of  thought  just  alluded  to,  sponta- 
neously arising  from  three  classes  of  human  im- 
pulses, manifested  themselves  at  this  era,  is  an 
essential  clue  in  threading  the  intricacies  of  the 
labyrinthine    citations  on   wines  and  their  law 
which  opposing  writers  may  readily  draw  from 
the  writers  of  this  age.     As  Judaism  at  this  era 
had  its    Pharisees,  Sadducees,  and   Essenes,  so 
Greeks  and   Romans  alike  had   their  practical 
conservatives,  their  pleasure-seeking  liberals,  and 
tlieir   stern    ascetics.     The   important   point   is 
to  find  the  common  principles  which  all  these 
classes,  in  their  impartial  statements,  admit  to  be 


132  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

established.  These  common  convictions  are  "  the 
truth  "  which  ought  to  guide  honest  men. 

When  Alexander,  the  cultured  pupil  of  Aris- 
totle, transformed  into  the  autocratic  military 
conqueror,  was  seen  at  thirty  to  be  in  danger 
from  wine-drinking,  a  physician  named  Andro- 
cydes,  Pliny  tells  us  (Nat.  Hist.  xiv.  5),  wrote  to 
him,  begging  him  to  avoid  wine,  since  it  was  "  a 
poison."  This  clear  conviction  pervaded  the  no- 
ble men  under  whose  guidance  the  Roman  Re- 
public was  coming  to  absorb  under  its  sway  all 
Western  Europe  and  Northern  Africa,  in  addi- 
tion to  all  Alexander's  conquests. 

Cato,  the  earliest  of  the  so-called  "  rustic,"  or 
agricultural  writers,  about  b.c.  200,  describes 
specially  the  mode  of  preparing  must,  or  unfer- 
mented  wine,  thus:  "If  you  wish  to  have  must 
all  the  year,  put  the  grape-juice  in  a  flask  (am- 
phora),  seal  over  the  cork  with  pitch,  and  lower 
it  into  a  cistern  (piscina).  After  thirty  days 
take  it  out ;  it  will  be  must  all  the  year"  (De  Re 
Rustica,  c.  120).  It  is  worthy  of  note,  that  the 
word  "  mustum  "  first  appears  in  Latin  literature 
in  the  age  of  Cato,  about  b.c.  200  ;  after  which  it 
is  often  met  till  Pliny's  day,  three  centuries  later. 
The  word  appears  during  this  period  as  an  ad- 
jective, meaning  "fresh,  new,  young;"  Cato 
using  the  expression, "  agna  musta,"  a  young  ewe- 
lamb.     Its  indirect  meaning  of  "  sweet "  is  seen 


Roman  ''Must,"  or  Unfermented  Wine.  133 

in  Varro's  expression,  "  mala  miistea,"  sweet-ap- 
ples. Sometimes  in  allusion  to  grape-juice 
"  vinum  mustum  "  is  used,  showing  that  the  un- 
fermented juice  of  the  grape  was  regarded  and 
called  wine  ;  just  as  in  modern  times  fresh  apple- 
juice,  before  ferment  begins,  is  called  "  new 
cider."  Other  suggestions  indicate  how  the  stern 
patriot  was  seeking  methods  of  utilizing  the  pro- 
ducts of  the  vine  so  as  to  prevent  the  use  of 
intoxicating  wines.  These  are  omitted,  because 
more  fully  described  by  Pliny. 

The  poet  Plautus  in  the  same  age  pictures  the 
vice  of  wine-drinking,  and  compares  its  influence 
with  that  of  those  who  drink  only  "  mustum  " 
or  unfermented  grape  -  juice.  Thus  in  his 
"  Pseudolus  "  or  Liar  (Act.  V.  1.  6-8),  he  makes 
the  hero  of  his  comedy  say — 

"  Ah,  saeviendum  mihi 
Hodie  est.    Magnum  hoc  vitium  vino  est, 
Pedes  captat  prinaum  ;  luctator  dolosus  est." 

"Ah,  I  must  get  angry  to-day.  There  is  this  great 
vice  in  wine :  it  first  seizes  a  man  by  the  feet ; 
it  is  a  tricky  wrestler." 

Yet  again,  Polybius,  the  philosophic  historian, 
called  pragmafdc^  i,  e.,  systemnatic  or  business-like, 
writing  as  a  Greek,  about  B.C.  160,  to  explain  to 
his  then  unconquered  countrymen  Roman  cus- 
toms, makes  this  statement  (Hist.  Kath.  I,  ii.  8) : 
'  Among  the  Romans  the  women  were  allowed 


134         1^^^  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

to  drink  a  wine  which  they  call  passum,  made 
from  dried  grapes ;  which  drink  very  much  resem- 
bled ^gosthenian  and  Cretan  glukos,  which  men 
use  for  the  purpose  of  allaying  thirst."  He  adds 
that  for  two  reasons  a  wife  could  not  violate  this 
law  of  custom  ;  first  she  was  not  entrusted  with 
the  keys  of  the  wine-vaults ;  and  second,  as  "  it 
was  necessary  that  she  should  kiss  (philein)  her 
own  and  her  husband's  relatives  every  day  when 
she  first  meets  them,"  her  breath  would  betray 
her  had  she  been  drinking  (VI.  ii.  3).  This 
record  establishes  the  fact  that  the  glukos  of  the 
Greeks  of  this  day  was  like  the  Roman  "  pas- 
sum"  in  properties  if  not  in  its  mode  of  manufac- 
ture ;  the  passum  being  made  of  raisins  soaked 
in  water. 

A  century  and  more  later,  Cicero,  writing  in 
the  last  days  of  the  Republic,  intimates  that  even 
the  rude  Gauls  had  by  observation  learned  the 
danger  of  drinking  intoxicating  wines.  He 
says  (Orat.  pro  M.  Font.),  "After  this  they 
would  drink  their  wine  more  diluted,  because 
they  thought  there  was  poison  in  it ; "  this  state- 
ment implying  that  to  counteract  its  alcoholic 
poison  they  always  had  diluted  wines,  and  that 
they  had  learned  to  add  a  larger  quantity  of  water 
when  fitness  for  active  service  forbade  indulsfence. 
In  this  oration  Cicero  specially  defends  his  client, 
Fonteius,   then   provincial    governor   in    Gaul 


Virgil  and  Horace  on  Wines.         135 

from  the  charge  "  ut  portorium  vini  instituerit, ' 
that  he  had  levied  a  tax  on  wine  (Orat.  pro, 
Font.  X.)  ;  the  allusion  showing  that  the  licenS' 
ing  of  the  sale  of  intoxicating  liquors  with  taxes 
for  revenue  on  that  sale,  was  a  Roman  custom. 

Virgil,  the  sweet  poet  of  nature,  writing  under 
Augustus,  pictures  (Georg.  i.  295)  the  delight 
of  the  winter  evenings  in  his  own  rural  home  ; 
when  the  laborer  sat  by  the  fire  sharpening  his 
tools,  and  his  wife,  beguiling  their  common  toil 
with  her  song,  was  boiling  the  "  flowing  sweet 
must "  (dulcis  musti  humorem) ;  this  picture 
revealing  how  the  product  of  the  grape  was  used 
by  the  simple  children  of  nature  at  that  day. 

In  the  same  age  the  opposing  tendency  of 
fashion,  pride,  luxury,  and  its  attendant  inhuman 
trifling  with  female  virtue,  is  seen  in  Horace; 
himself  rather  the  Burns,  than  the  Byron  of  his 
day.  More  heartless  than  Burns,  how  the  ser- 
pent shows  his  fangs  as  well  as  his  glistening 
scales  in  the  ode  (I.  11)  to  Leuconoe,  whom  he 
would  seduce  !  He  writes,  "  Thou  should'st  not 
seek  to  know — it  is  wrong  to  ask  what  end  the 

gods  have  fixed  for  me  and  thee Thou 

mayest  taste  and  strain  out  the  wines.  Cut 
short  deferred  hope,  since  time  is  brief  Carpe 
diem"  seize  the  day.  Horace,  like  Burns  and 
Byron,  knew  well  that  it  was  a  demon  that 
possessed  him,  when  thus  he  wrote.     In  other 


136         The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

hours  Horace  pictured  the  dread  approach  of 
the  avenging  deity,  inflicting  the  penalty  fol 
violating  known  law.  Indeed  the  Athenian's 
theory  in  Plato's  Laws  seems  in  the  case  of 
Horace  to  have  a  show  of  truth  ;  since  men  of 
genius  in  their  hours  of  remorse  for  yielding  to 
sensual  indulgence,  bring  out  with  a  vividness 
which  only  experience  could  give  the  dire  ef- 
fects of  wine-drinking.  With  a  vein  of  irony 
Horace  pictures  (Sat.  H.  viii.  30-50)  the  parade 
of  wines  by  a  pretentious  host,  from  the  syrupy- 
sweet  (meli  mela)  to  the  vinegar-sour  (aceto). 
With  more  of  seriousness  he  pictures  (Epis.  I. 
xviii.  31-38)  the  vain  young  man,  in  debt  for 
his  fine  clothes,  "  tortured  both  with  wine  and 
rage  "  at  his  exposure  by  the  unpaid  tailor.  With 
sober  criticism  he  writes  (Epist.  I.  xix.  1-6)  : 
"  If  you  trust  ancient  Cratinus,  learned  Maecenas, 
no  songs  can  please  long,  nor  live,  which  were 
written  by  water-drinkers  (aquae  potoribus). 
As  soon  as  Bacchus  enrolled  poets  scarcely  sane 
with  satyrs  and  fauns,  soon  songs,  but  partially 
sweet,  smelt  of  wine.  By  praises  of  wine  Homei 
is  proved  to  be  fond  of  wine  "  (vinosus,  see  Iliad 
VI.  261).  Finally,  with  philosophic  fidelity  to 
truth  in  his  "  Ars  Poetica"  Horace  pictures  the 
rural  poets,  simple  and  natural,  because  of  their 
plain  diet  on  "  fruit " ;  while  in  the  age  of  arti- 
ficial luxury  genius   is  wooed  "  by  daily  wine " 


Ro77ian  Historians  on  Wines.  137 

(1.  209).  Yet  more  frank  is  the  poet's  confession, 
when  farlher  on  (1.  412-414)  he  says:  "He 
who  studies  to  reach  the  desired  goal,  from  boy- 
hood bears  and  works  much,  endures  heat  and 
cold,  and  abstains  from  lust  and  wine." 

At  the  very  time  when,  at  the  court  of  Au- 
gustus, Horace  was  flattering  to  seduce,  and 
Virgil,  by  his  inspiring  Pollio  and  iEneid,  was 
stimulating  a  purer  aspiration,  the  profoundest 
of  historians  and  the  most  analytic  of  medical 
writers  were  called  out.  Strabo  and  Diodorus 
as  historians,  are  chief  authorities  as  to  wine- 
drinking  in  their  own  and  former  ages.  At  the 
same  day  Dioscorides,  the  authority  in  materia 
medica  from  that  age  till  after  Bacon  wrote  his 
"  Novum  Organum,"  was  prosecuting  his  com- 
prehensive investigations.  In  his  "  Peri  hyles 
iatrikes"  "Of  Materia  Medica,"  he  describes  vari- 
ous kinds  of  wines,  differing  as  to  age,  climate, 
taste,  color,  etc.  He  says,  *'  Old  wines  are  dead- 
ening (blaptikoi)  to  the  nerves,  and  to  the  other 
instruments  of  the  senses,  hence  they  are  to  be 
avoided  by  those  having  any  internal  organ 
weak  "  (V.  7).  Again  he  says  (V.  9),  "  Sweet 
wine  (glukus  oinos)  disorders  the  bowels,  as 
does  unfermented  wine  (glukos,  Lat.  mustum)  ; 
but  it  surfeits  (methuskei)  less."  The  use  of  the 
v^erb  methusko^  by  Dioscorides  confirms  again 
the  fact,  that  it  is  a  general  word,  like  the  En- 


138         The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines, 

glish  "  arink  "  ;  or  a  designation  referring  to  any 
of  the  several  effects  of  wine  either  as  surfeiting 
stupefying  or  crazing. 

A  century  later,  under  emperors  of  varied 
character,  from  Nero  to  Trajan,  a  cluster  of 
writers  are  met  whose  testimony  as  to  wines  is 
most  instructive  and  impressive.  Among  these 
are  the  historians  Tacitus  and  Plutarch,  the 
naturalist  Pliny,  the  physician  Galen,  the  agri- 
cultural writer  Columella,  and  the  moralist 
Seneca. 

Plutarch,  writing  of  the  past,  illustrates  and 
confirms  the  Egyptian,  Grecian  and  Roman 
history  already  traced. 

Tacitus,  writing  of  his  own,  as  well  as  of  earlier 
times,  pictures  not  only  Roman,  but  German 
habits.  He  says  of  the  Germans  :  "  To  pass  day 
and  night  in  drinking  is  a  disgrace  to  no  one." 
.  ..."  At  feasts,  mainly,  they  consult  as  to 
being  reconciled  to  enemies,  as  to  making  trea- 
ties, as  to  approving  their  chiefs,  and  in  fine  as  to 
peace  and  war ;  as  if  at  no  time  did  the  mind 
so  lay  open  its  simple  thoughts,  or  warm  up  to 
great  deeds.  A  race,  neither  astute  nor  ardent, 
reveals  at  such  times  the  secrets  of  the  heart 
under  the  license  of  a  jest.  Then,  the  thought 
of  all,  detected  and  naked,  is  the  next  day  taken 
up  again ;  and  decision  from  both  occasions  is 
safe.     They  deliberate  when  they  know  not  how 


Roman  Agriculturists  on  Wines,      139 

to  dissemble  ;  they  decide  when  they  are  not 
able  to  err."  Politicians  of  all  ages  have  ap- 
preciated this  method  of  accomplishing  an  end 
through  a  banquet ;  a  custom  whose  science,  as 
well  as  its  art,  was  practiced,  Herodotus  relates 
(I.  133),  by  the  early  Persians;  whose  philoso- 
phy, as  here  shown  by  Tacitus  (Germ.  22),  was 
conceived  by  the  rude  ancestry  of  nations  now 
leading  in  modern  civilization  ;  yet  needing  a 
deeper  study  of  a  custom  still  barbarian,  which 
rather  mars  than  makes,  if  Tacitus  rightly 
judged. 

Columella,  the  rural  writer,  more  fully  than 
Cato  at  an  earlier  age,  describes  (XII.  29)  the 
mode  of  preparing  unintoxicating  wine.  He 
says :  "  That  must  may  remain  always  sweet,  as 
if  it  were  fresh,  thus  do :  before  the  grape-skins 
have  been  put  under  the  press,  put  must,  the 
freshest  possible  from  the  wine-vat,  into  a  new 
flask,  and  seal  and  pitch  it  over  carefully,  so  that 
no  water  can  get  in.  Then  sink  the  flask  in 
cold  sweet  water,  so  that  no  part  of  it  shall  be 
uncovered.  Then,  again,  after  the  fortieth  day 
take  it  out ;  and  thus  prepared,  it  will  remain 
sweet  throughout  the  year." 

Galen,  the  great  authority  in  general  medical 
science,  as  Dioscorides  was  in  materia  medica 
down  to  Bacon's  day,  describes  different  kinds  of 
wine :  and  he  states  the  effects  of   sweet  and 


140         The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

sour,  of  new  and  old,  of  must,  fresh  or  boiled 
on  the  human  system.  He  agrees  with  Hippoc- 
rates, whom  he  cites,  and  also  with  Dioscorides, 
as  to  the  deleterious  as  well  as  medicinal  prop- 
erties of  the  various  fruits  of  the  vine,  whether 
diuretic  or  stimulating ;  giving  special  place  to 
their  action  on  the  nerves  and  on  the  mental 
faculties.  Seneca  presents  the  moral  lessons  of 
his  age  as  to  wine-drinking.  In  his  Epistle  (16) 
on  "General  Dissolution  of  Manners,"  he  speaks 
of  the  "general  complaint"  of  his  age,  that 
"fashion"  rules  vices;  now  making  "scoffing," 
now  "  drinking  "  respectable ;  saying  as  to  the 
latter,  "  he  shall  be  accounted  the  bravest  man 
who  makes  himself  the  veriest  beast."  Speaking 
of  "  the  two  blessings  of  life,  a  sound  body  and 
a  quiet  mind,"  he  asks,  "  Who  was  greater  than 
Alexander?"  And  yet  "his  lusts  tarnished  the 
glory  of  all  his  victories ; "  and  he  says :  "  When 
the  blood  comes  to  be  inflamed  with  excess  of 
wine  and  meats,  simple  water  is  not  cold  enough 
to  allay  that  fever-heat ;  and  we  are  forced  to 
make  use  of  remedies,  which  remedies  them- 
selves are  vices."  He  adds,  "  Even  women  have 
lost  the  advantage  of  their  sex ;"  for  "  they  sit 
up  as  late  as  men  and  drink  as  much." 

Pliny,  however,  is  the  most  comprehensive  as  to 
the  history,  the  physical  and  the  moral  evils  of 
wine-drinking,  and  as  to  the  resorts  of  wise  and 


Pliny y  the  Naturalist,  on  Wines.       141 

good  men  in  all  ages  to  check  its  corrupting  in- 
fluence. Five  of  the  thirty-seven  books  of  Pliny's 
Natural  History  (12th  to  i6th)  treat  of  plants, 
and  five  more  (17th  to  21st)  of  their  medici- 
nal properties ;  and  in  these,  as  well  as  in  three 
subsequent  books  (23d,  30th  and  36th),  wine 
has  a  large  place.  He  mentions  incidentally 
(B.  Xn.)  that  spiced  wine  at  funerals  was  for- 
bidden by  law  ;  the  statute  reading :  "  Murrata 
potio  mortuo  ne  inditur,"  "let  not  spiced  drink  be 
placed  on  a  corpse."  In  the  next  book  (XHI.  5) 
he  mentions  that  in  Egypt  wines  (vina)  were 
made  from  plums  (myxis),figs  and  pomegranates ; 
showing  the  wide  application  of  the  Latin  word 
vinum,  illustrative  especially  of  the  Greek  word 
oinos,  also  illustrated  in  the  French  term  "  vin." 

The  next  book  (XIV.)  is  largely  devoted 
to  the  subject  of  wine.  He  alludes  to  the  de- 
grading pride  of  the  materialist  Democritus ; 
that  he  boasted  that  he  was  familiar  with  all  the 
kinds  of  wine  produced  in  Greece  (c.  2).  He 
cites  (c.  5)  the  address  of  the  physician  Andro- 
cydes  to  Alexander ;  in  which  occurred  the  ex- 
pression, "  The  hemlock  is  the  poison  of  men, 
the  poison  of  wine  is  hemlock."  He  mentions 
(c.  9)  fourteen  kinds  of  sweet  wine,  invented  to 
diminish  the  intoxicating  influence  of  wine  ;  and 
he  defines  "  defrutum  "  as  wine  boiled  down  to 
half  its  consistency.     He  especially  states  that 


142 


The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 


among  sweet  wines  is  that  which  the  Greeks  call 
aeigleukos,  or  "semper  mustum,"  always  must, 
or  unfermented  grape  juice  ;  another  link  in  the 
chain  of  testimonies  as  to  unfermented  wines. 
Stating  that  this  aeigleukos  is  made  by  prevent- 
ing the  grape-juice  from  fermenting  (fervere),  he 
defines  fermentation  thus :  "  So  they  call  the 
passing  over  of  must  into  wines  "  (musti  in  vina 
transitum).  He  states  that  fermentation  is  ar- 
rested in  Greece  by  tightly  corking  the  grape- 
juice  fresh  from  the  press-vat ;  or  by  drying  the 
grapes,  as  in  Narbonensis  on  the  vines,  and  at 
any  time  preparing  from  them,  soaked  in  water, 
the  "  aeigleukos."  Fie  mentions  (c.  10)  three 
wines  called  by  the  Greeks  deuteriay  second- 
quality.  The  first  is  the  lora  of  the  Romans ; 
made  by  grinding  up  grape-skins  in  water ;  the 
second,  also  described  by  Cato,  is  wine  boiled 
with  half  water ;  and  the  third  is  lees-wine,  made 
of  the  settlings  of  the  wine-vat,  called  by  Cato 
*  faecatum." 

Coming  to  the  religious  bearing  of  wine- 
drinking,  Pliny  says  (c.  12)  :  "That  Romulus  of- 
fered libations  of  milk,  not  of  wine,  is  proved  by 
the  sacred  rites  which  he  instituted  ;  which  till 
this  day  preserve  the  custom  "  (morem.)  Numa 
made  yet  more  stringent  laws ;  citing  as  a 
reason  that  Romulus,  his  predecessor,  was  fed  by 
Divine  interposition    "  on  milk,  not   on  wine.'' 


Numas  Laws  as  to  Wines,  143 

He  ordained,  "  Do  not  sprinkle  a  grave  with 
wine  ; "  and  he  taught  substantially  that  it  was 
"  wrong  to  make  wine."  The  Old  Latins,  who 
preceded  the  Romans,  used  wine  in  religious  of- 
ferings ;  but  they  offered  "  milk  to  Mercury,"  the 
god  of  eloquence,  indicating  that  no  public 
speaker  should  be  under  the  influence  of  wine. 
He  says  (c.  18),  "The  wines  of  the  early  ages 
were  employed  as  medicine,"  ....  "Wines  began," 
he  continues,  "  to  be  authorized  in  the  six  hun- 
dredth year  of  the  city."  He  adds  that  even  then 
it  was  used  "  sparingly ; "  that  women  never  drank 
it  except  "  for  health  ;"  and  that "  since  this  is  con- 
sistent with  religion  (constat  religione)  it  was 
held  impious  (nefastum)  to  offer  wine  to  gods." 
He  adds  that  the  Greeks  indicated  the  same  rev- 
erence in  the  fact  that  the  wines  they  offered  as 
libations  were  diluted  (aquam  habeant).  Pro- 
ceeding farther  on  to  describe  the  methods  in- 
vented to  secure  unintoxicating  wines,  he  ex- 
claims, after  tracing  (c.  22)  the  fearful  effects  of 
intoxicating  wines,  "  Alas  !  what  wondrous  skill  I 
and  yet  how  misplaced  !  Means  have  even  been 
sought  for  becoming  inebriated  on  water-prepara- 
tions." Among  the  counter-methods  of  prevent- 
ing intoxication  (c.  24,  25)  he  describes,  as  Cato 
and  Columella,  the  preparation  of  must ;  he 
notices  the  Grctk  protropos  as  the  "  must  which 
flows  of  its  own  accord  before  the  grapes  are 


144         ^^^  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

trodden;"  he  further  mentions  "a  mode  (ratio) 
of  preserving  musts  in  the  first  stage  of  ferment " 
(in  primo  fervore)  ;  and  again  shows  how  to 
arrest  ferment,  when  by  carelessness  it  arises  in 
must,  by  the  use  of  anything  that  has  sulphur  in 
it,  as  pumice-stone  (pumice)  or  lava,  the  yolk  of 
eggs,  or  sulphur  fumes. 

Pliny  closes  this  book  (c.  28)  with  one  of  the 
most  eloquent  of  total-abstinence  appeals  ever 
penned  or  uttered.  "  How  strange,"  he  exclaims, 
'  that  men  will  devote  such  labor  and  expense 
for  wine,  when  water,  as  is  seen  in  the  case  of 
animals,  is  the  most  healthful  (saluberrimum) 
drink ;  a  drink  supplied,  too,  by  nature ;  while 
wine  takes  away  reason  (mente),  engenders  in- 
sanity, leads  to  thousands  of  crimes,  and  imposes 
such  an  enormous  expense  on  nations."  He  says 
that  confirmed  drinkers  "  through  fear  of  death  " 
resulting  from  intoxication,  take  as  counteractives 
"  poisons  such  as  hemlock  "  (cicutam,)  and  "  others 
which  it  would  be  shameful  to  name."  "And 
yet,"  asks  he,  "  why  do  they  thus  act  ?  "  "  The 
drunkard  never  sees  the  sun-rise  ;  his  life  by 
drinking  is  shortened  ;  from  wine  comes  that 
pallid  hue,  those  drooping  eyelids,  those  sore 
eyes,  those  trembling  hands,  ....  sleep  made 
hideous  by  furies  during  nights  of  restlessness , 
and  as  the  crowning  penalty  of  intoxication 
(prsemium  summum  inebrietatis)   those  dreams 


Pliny  on  Abstinence  from  Wine.        145 

of  beastly  lust  whose  enjoyment  is  forbidden." 
He  adds  that  many  are  led  into  this  condition 
"  by  the  self-interested  advice  of  physicians  (medi- 
corum  placitis)  who  seek  to  commend  themselves 
by  some  novel  remedy."  It  was  this  "  that  led 
to  the  cruelty  of  Tiberius ;  this  corrupts  youth, 
as  was  even  the  son  of  Cicero ;  "  while,  he  adds, 
"  as  I  think,  the  great  evils  brought  on  us  by 
Antony,  came  through  his  intoxication."  In 
later  allusions  new  and  important  light  is  thrown 
on  Roman  experience  as  to  wine. 

Closing  up  in  the  opening  of  his  23d  book 
his  statements  as  to  wine,  striking  the  balance 
between  those  who  extol  and  those  who  con- 
demn it,  he  says  (xxiii.  i)  :  "All  must  is  useless 
for  digestion  (stomacho),  but  is  a  gentle  aid 
to  circulation "  (venis).  As  to  intoxicating 
wines,  professedly  taken  as  a  medicine,  he  ex- 
claims :  "  Moreover,  how  uncertain  the  result, 
whether  in  drinking  there  may  be  aid  or  poison 
(auxilium  sit  aut  venenum").  "  In  the  history 
of  medicine,"  he  continues,  "  differing  views  have 
been  held  ; "  some  saying, "  by  the  moderate  use 
of  wine  the  muscles  are  strengthened,  but  by  its 
excess  they  are  injured,  and  so  with  the  eyes." 
Among  others,  the  physician  Asclepiades  ex- 
travagantly remarked  :  "  The  virtues  possessed 
by  wine  are  hardly  equalled  by  the  gods  them- 
selves." As  the  result  of  all  testimonies  Pliny 
7 


146  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

makes  these  notes :  "  Sweet  wines  are  less  use- 
ful for  digestion  (stomacho)  ;  old  wine  mixed 
with  water  is  more  nutritious ;  for  while  sweet 
wine  is  less  inebriating  it  floods  (innatat)  the 
stomach."  As  to  its  effects  on  the  mind,  he 
notes,  "  it  has  passed  into  a  proverb  '  Sapientiam 
vino  adumbrari,'  that  wisdom  is  beclouded  by 
wine."  As  to  its  unnatural  influence  on  appe- 
tite, he  declares,  "  We  men  owe  it  to  wine  that 
we  alone,  of  all  animals,  drink  when  not  thirsty." 
Many  like  suggestions  are  added. 

If  any  age  was  ever  advanced  in  its  cleat 
views  of  the  nature  of  wine  as  "  the  fruit  of  that 
forbidden  tree  "  which  "  brought  death  into  the 
world,"  and  much  of  "  human  woe,"  it  was  this 
climactic  age  of  Roman-Grecian  culture.  It 
should  be  observed  that  the  language  then  per- 
fected was  chosen  for  the  embodiment  both  of 
the  first  translation  of  the  Old  Testament  and 
also  of  the  New  Testament.  This  climactic  age, 
moreover,  of  the  practical  Romans,  was  the  one 
Divinely  chosen  for  the  mission  of  Jesus  and  of 
His  apostles ;  who  taught  the  permanent  law  of 
duty  as  to  intoxicating  wines. 

WINES   IN  THE  GREEK  TRANSLATION   OF   THE  OLD 
TESTAMENT. 

In  the  century  following  Alexander's  Grecian 
Empire,  Hebrew  translators  prepared  the  Greek 


Wine  in  the  Greek  Old  Testament.     147 

version  of  the  Old  Testament  Scriptures  which 
was  used  by  Christ  and  His  apostles  ;  to  which 
was  added  the  books  called  "  apocryphal "  or 
"  deutero-canonical ; "  containing  valuable  illus- 
trations of  Hebrew  history  and  sentiment,  writ- 
ten in  the  Greek  of  the  Alexandrine  age.  These 
indicate  how  Hebrew  terms  for  wine  were  trans- 
lated into  Greek  ;  and  what  ideas  as  to  wine 
were  held  by  Hebrews  associated  with  Greeks. 

As  to  the  Greek  terms  used  for  Hebrew  terms 
for  wines  and  their  differing  effects,  a  careful  re- 
view of  the  authorities  already  cited  is,  for  two 
reasons,  demanded.  First,  the  Greek  language 
itself  took  on  special  modifications,  when  after 
the  death  of  Alexander  the  Greeks  who  dwelt 
in  Asia  came  to  use  Asiatic  words  and  forms  of 
speech.  Second,  the  nature  of  those  modifica- 
tions is  not  so  fully  manifested  in  the  Alexan- 
drine Greek  writers  as  it  is  in  the  Hebrew  au- 
thors of  the  Greek  translation  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, and  in  the  New  Testament  writers.  As, 
in  Canada,  the  French  natives  have  one  class  of 
provincialisms,  and  the  English,  speaking  French, 
another  class,  so  was  it  in  Syria  and  Egypt  from 
B.C.  250  to  A.D.  100 ;  the  era  of  the  Greek 
Scriptures  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments. 

With  two  noteworthy  exceptions,  the  Hebrew 
term  tiroshy  as  well  as  the  word  yayin,  is  ren 
dered  by  the  general  term  oinos,  wine.    This,  for  a 


148         The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

double  reason,  was  natural.  First,  foreigners 
usually  learn,  in  a  new  country,  general  terms 
before  they  fully  comprehend  specific  terms. 
Second,  the  Greek  specific  term  for  unferment- 
ed  wine,  gleukos,  was  of  late  invention ;  it  was 
when  invented,  Hke  the  Latin  "  mustum,"  but  an- 
adjective  slightly  changed  in  form  to  be  used  as 
a  noun  ;  and  yet  more,  as  Aristotle  intimates,  it 
was,  though  a  special  term,  ranked  under  the 
general  term  oinos.  In  two  cases,  however,  as 
we  have  noted,  the  Greek  translators  are  specific 
in  their  translation  of  tirosh.  In  Isaiah  Ixv.  8, 
it  is  rendered  rox,  or  burst-fruit ;  the  connection, 
as  heretofore  mentioned,  indicating  that  the  ref*^r- 
ence  of  tirosh  is  to  fresh  grape-juice,  still  in  the 
grape,  and  so  abundant  as  to  burst  the  skin. 

In  Hosea  iv.  11,  however,  where  the  English 
translation  is,  "  Whoredom  and  wine  (yayin)  and 
new  wine  (tirosh)  take  away  the  heart,"  the 
Greeks  make  the  object  the  subject ;  and  bring- 
ing forward  from  v.  12,  the  words  "my  people" 
they  render :  "  The  heart  of  my  people  takes  to 
(exdexato)  fornication  and  wine  (oinon)  and 
methus7na"  The  English  translators  agreeing 
with  all  mediaeval  versions,  saw  reasons  for  em- 
ploying the  words  "  new  wine"  to  render  tirosh; 
those  reasons  have  already  been  indicated ;  and 
the  ordinary  Greek  rendering  of  tirosh  elsewhere 
was   one   among  those  reasons.     The  only   re- 


I 


**Meihusma,  Methuo  and  Methuskoy    149 

maining  inquiry  here  is  this  :  What  prompted  the 
Greek  translators  to  this  unusual  rendering  in 
this  single  passage  ?  Since  much  of  the  modern 
controversy  as  to  the  nature  of  tirosh  has  turned 
on  a  manifestly  mistaken  view  of  this  exceptional 
rendering  of  the  word  by  the  Greek  translators 
it  is  appropriate  that  it  receive  due  consideration. 
As  already  noticed,  the  root  word  methe^  in 
Greek,  indicates  "surfeit."  In  the  verbal  root 
methuo  this  signification  is  more  fully  preserved 
than  in  the  derivative  methusko.  The  noun 
"methusma,"  not  found  in  classic,  but  only  in 
Byzantine  and  modern  Greek,  is  derived  from 
the  root  verb  methuo.  The  tendency  to  this  dis- 
tinction in  the  two  verbs  is  specially  observed  in 
the  New  Testament ;  and  it  has  been  preserved 
in  such  translations  as  the  Latin  and  German 
where  the  distinction  could  be  indicated.  The 
verb  "methusko"  is  met  three  times:  in  Luke 
xii.  45  ;  Eph.  v.  8  ;  i  Thess.  v.  7.  The  verb  "  me- 
thuo "  is  found  seven  times :  in  Matt.  xxiv.  49  ; 
John  ii.  10 ;  Acts  ii.  15  ;  i  Cor.  xi.  21  ;  i  Thess. 
V.  7  ;  and  Rev.  xvii.  2,6.  In  each  of  the  former 
cases  intoxication  is  indicated ;  but  in  i  Cor.  xi. 
2 1 ,  the  contrast  between  "  hungry  "  and  "  drunk- 
en "  shows  that  it  is  surfeit,  both  with  food  and 
drink,  that  is  indicated  ;  while  in  John  ii.  10,  and 
Acts  ii.  15,  the  same  meaning  is  apparently  indi- 
cated. 


150  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines, 

Coming  to  the  Latin  language,  the  same  dis- 
tinction is  found  between  ebrio  and  incbrio. 
The  former  is  used  for  distinctiveness  when  sur- 
feit is  specially  to  be  indicated,  and  the  latter 
when  intoxication  is  to  be  made  prominent ;  as 
the  mere  English  student  may  learn  from  Web- 
ster under  the  word  "  inebriate."  This  usage  is 
seen  in  Pliny ;  whose  age,  from  a.d.  23  to  79,  is 
specially  illustrative  of  the  Greek  of  the  Old  and 
New  Testaments,  as  well  as  of  the  early  Latin 
versions,  and  of  Latin  annotations  on  both  the 
Old  and  New  Testaments.  Thus  Pliny  says  of 
an  apple  excessively  juicy  and  luscious :  "  rumpit 
se  pomi  ipsius  ebrietas,"  the  very  juiciness  of  the 
apple  bursts  it ;  and  again,  "  Uvae  vino  suo  ine- 
briantur,"  the  grape-clusters  are  inebriated  with 
their  own  wine.  In  the  Latin  of  Jerome  "me- 
thuo  "  in  the  distinctive  passages  alluded  to  is 
rendered  "ebreo"  and  "  methusko"  by  "  inebrio." 
Jerome  renders  Hosea  iv.  11,  after  the  Greek 
version  :  "  Fornicatio  et  vinum  et  ebrietas  aufert 
cor."  That  by  "  ebrietas  "  he  means  "  surfeit,"  and 
that  he  so  understood  the  Greek  "  methusma,"  is 
evident  from  his  added  comment :  "  For  as  wine 
and  surfeit  (ebrietas)  render  impotent  (impotem) 
the  mind  (mentis)  of  him  who  shall  have  drunk, 
so  also  fornication  and  luxury  (voluptas)  destroy 
the  sensibility  (sensum)  and  weaken  the  energy 
(animum). 


Reforrners  View  of  the  Greek  "Meihuo."  151 

Coming  to  modern  translations  the  distinction 
between  "  methuo  "  and  methusko  "  is  made  by 
Luther,  where  definiteness  seemed  requisite  in 
the  German  renderings.  In  Luther's  translation 
the  word  "  trunken  "  is  found  in  John  ii.  10 ;  Acts 
ii.  12;  i.  Cor.  xi.  21;  while  "  saufen  "  is  used  in 
Luke  xii.  45,  and  Eph.  v.  18.  In  Hos.  iv.  11 
Luther  translates  from  the  Hebrew,  rendering 
"  tirosh  "  by  "  most ; "  as  the  English  translators 
rendered  it  "  new  wine." 

Among  other  able  scholars  who  have  made 
this  special  Greek  root,  and  its  derivative 
"methusma"  used  in  Hos.  iv.  11,  an  exhaustive 
study,  was  John  Cocceius,  Professor  of  Hebrew 
in  Holland,  from  a.d.  1636  to  1650,  and  trans- 
ferred as  Professor  of  Theology  to  Leyden,  at  the 
latter  date.  His  voluminous  and  exhaustive  stud- 
ies in  both  these  departments  form  an  era  in  the 
modem  progress  of  Biblical  learning.  In  com- 
menting on  John  ii.  10,  Cocceius  remarks:  "  It 
is  not  to  be  overlooked  that  metkuetn,  as  the 
Hebrew  shekar,  is  not  to  be  taken  in  an  equally 
broad  sense ; "  and  he  refers  to  the  following 
three  passages  as  illustrating  his  meaning:  Ps. 
xxiii.  5;  Ixv^.  10;  Isa.  Iviii.  11.  In  Ps.  xxiii.  5, 
for  "  my  cup  runneth  over ; "  the  Greek  is  "  to 
poterion  sou  methuskon,"  thy  cup  is  brimming. 
In  Ps.  Ixv.  10,  for  "Thou  waterest  the  ridges 
thereof,"   the   Greek    has    "tous    aulakas   autes 


152  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines, 

methuskon,"  drench  the  furrows  thereof.  In  Isa, 
Iviii.  1 1,  for  "  thou  shalt  be  like  a  watered  garden," 
the  Greek  has  "  estai  6s  kepos  methuon,"  thou 
shalt  be  as  a  garden  saturated. 

This  manifest  use  of  the  verb,  rendered  "  drunk- 
en "  in  English,  by  the  Greek  translators  of  the 
Old  Testament,  will  be  found  to  have  prepared 
the  way  for  the  study  of  the  New  Testament 
wines. 

WINES    IN    THE    APOCRYPHAL    BOOKS. 

The  books  styled  "deutero-canonical"  by  schol- 
ars of  the  Roman  Church  such  as  Jahn  of  Vienna, 
Austria,  but  generally  regarded  and  styled  "  apoc- 
ryphal," were  written  evidently  under  the  Greek 
successors  of  Alexander.  They  consist  of  tra- 
ditional and  partially  fictitious  representations  of 
events  in  former  ages  of  Hebrew  history ;  records 
in  which  more  fully  than  in  the  translation  of  the 
Hebrew  Scriptures  into  Greek,  the  meeting  and 
mingling  sentiment  of  both  races  is  revealed. 
In  the  book  of  Judith  (xii.  i  to  xiii.  8),  the  scene 
of  which  is  laid  in  old  Assyria,  the  beautiful 
Jewish  maiden  who  plotted  the  assassination  of 
the  tyrant  Holofernes  then  oppressing  Israel, 
thus  meets  the  counterplot  of  the  oppressor  who 
wishes  to  seduce  her.  Versed  in  his  art,  knowing 
the  inflaming  influence  of  wine,  Holofernes 
seeks  to  persuade  her   to   "drink   of  his   own 


Wine  in  Ihe  Apocryphal  Books.        153 

wine ; "  but  Judith  pleads  religious  scruples,  and 
urges  that  she  has  provision  of  her  own.  Pressed 
still  by  Bagoas,  the  king's  eunuch,  she  is  firm. 
She  waits  till  the  king,  intoxicated  already  by 
anticipated  gratification  of  his  lust,  "  drank 
much  more  wine  than  he  had  drunk  at  any  time 
in  one  day  since  he  was  born."  When,  sunk  in 
stupid  unconsciousness  on  his  bed,  for  "  he  was 
filled  with  wine,"  the  maiden  took  down  his  fal- 
chion from  its  nail,  swung  it  high,  struck  two 
blows,  and  levered  his  neck.  The  forbidden 
fruit,  the  serpent,  the  tempter's  failure  with  the 
heroine,  and  her  conquest  over  the  tyrant,  are  all 
wrought  to  the  life  into  this  picture. 

In  the  Book  of  Esdras,  whose  scene  is  also 
laid  under  Darius,  during  the  Jewish  captivity  in 
Babylon,  when  three  young  men,  the  last  of 
whom  was  Zorobabel,  who  became  the  leader  of 
the  restored  captives,  speak  successively  of  the 
four  powers,  that  of  wine,  of  the  king,  of  women 
and  of  truth,  the  champion  of  wine  suggests  these 
among  others  of  its  triumphs  (i  Esdr.  iii.  18-24)  : 

"It  causeth  all  them  to  err  who  drink  it 

It  turneth  every  thought  into  jollity  and  mirth. 
....  When  they  are  in  their  cups  men  forget 
their  love  both  to  friends  and  brethren ;  present- 
ly they  draw  their  swords ;  bufr  when  they  are 
out  of  the  wine  they  remember  not  what  they 
have  done."  The  facts  as  to  the  effects  of  wine- 
7* 


154 


The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 


irinking,  thus  pictured,  were  the  same  in  that 
age  as  in  all  others.  Whether  men  learn  wisdom 
from  experience  is  another  question.  In  the 
supplement  to  the  Book  of  Esther,  whose  scene 
is  an  imaginary  picture  like  the  other  two  men- 
tioned of  the  Assyrian  sojourn,  queen  Esther  is 
represented  as  making  this  plea  in  her  prayer : 
"  I  have  not  from  desire  eaten  the  king's  feast ; 
nor  have  I  drunk  the  wine  of  the  drink-offer- 
ings ; "  thus  intimating  that  as  want  of  appetite 
for  the  feast  excused  her  not  eating  of  the  king's 
viands,  so  her  conscience  should  excuse  her  from 
drinking  of  the  wine  impiously  made  an  offering 
to  idol  gods. 

Finally  the  Book  of  the  Maccabees,  which 
describes  the  deeds  of  those  later  resisters  of 
Greek  tyranny,  has  this  final  record,  closing  the 
volume  of  these  Hebrew-Greek  traditions  and 
histories  (2  Mace.  xv.  39)  :  "  For,  as  it  is  hurtful 
to  drink  wine  or  water  alone,  and  as  wine 
mingled  with  water  is  pleasant  and  delighteth 
the  taste,  even  so  speech  finely  framed  delighteth 
the  ears  of  them  that  read  the  story.  And  here 
shall  be  the  end."  The  custom  of  diluting  wines 
to  limit  their  injurious  effect  is  well  compared  to 
the  half-intoxicating  influence  of  historic  fiction. 

In  addition  to'the  lessons  inwrought  into  this 
instructive  though  fancy-framed  history,  the 
Book  of  "  Ecclesiasticus,"  an  imitation  of  Solo- 


Wine  in  the  Apocryphal  Books.         155 

mon's  Ecclesiastes,  as  the  so-called  "  Wisdom  of 
Solomon  "  is  an  imitation  of  his  Proverbs,  is  full 
of  hints  as  to  wine  like  to  those  of  Solomon. 
This  comparison,  oft  misinterpreted  (ix.  10),  is  like 
that  of  Christ  equally  perverted  in  Luke  v.  39 : 
"  Forsake  not  an  old  friend  ;  for  the  new  is  not 
comparable  to  him.  A  new  friend  is  as  new  wine ; 
when  it  is  old  thou  shalt  drink  it  with  pleasure." 
The  point  of  the  writer  is  overlooked  when  the 
statement  preceding  is  separated,  as  it  often  is, 
from  this  declaration.  The  "  old  friend  "  referred 
to  is  the  wife  of  one's  youth ;  as  in  Prov.  v.  18, 
(also  Eccles.  ix.  9)  ;  the  influence  of  wine  alluded 
to  is  its  inflaming  of  lust ;  and  the  result  of  that 
inflaming  is  that  pictured  by  Solomon  in  Prov. 
vi.  29 ;  as  is  apparent  to  any  one  who  reads  the 
preceding  verse  (Eccles.  ix.  9).  This  warning  is 
strengthened  by  allusion  to  the  virtue  of  the  true 
wife  (xv.  3)  ;  who  gives  to  her  husband  "  the 
water  of  wisdom  to  drink."  It  is  confirmed  as 
Solomon's  parallel  by  the  declaration  (xix.  2), 
"  wine  and  women  {i.  e.,  women  who  themselves 
are  wine-drinkers)  will  make  men  of  under- 
standing to  fall  away."  The  kindred  sentiment 
is  more  fully  brought  out  in  the  expressions 
(xxxi.  25,  26):  "Show  not  thy  valiantness  in 
wine,  for  wine  hath  destroyed  many.  The  fur- 
nace proveth  the  edge  by  dipping ;  so  doth  wine 
the  heart  of  the  proud  in  battle."     Then  follows 


156  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

the  drinker's  plea  (vs.  27,  28)  :     "  Wine  is  as  life 
to  man  if  drunk  moderately.     What  is  life  to  a 
man  lacking  wine  ?  for  it  was  made  as  a  delight 
to   men.      Wine  drunk   in   season   moderately 
brings  gladness  to  the  heart  and  delight  to  the 
soul."     The  offset  response  to  this  plea  is  (vs. 
29,  30)  :     "  Bitterness  of  soul  is  in  much  wine 
drunk  with  brawling  and  quarreling.     Drunken- 
ness makes  the  wrath  of  the  senseless  swell  unto 
stumbling;  it  takes  away  strength   and  inflicts 
wounds."     In  counsel  like  that  of  both  Solomon 
and   Jesus,    the   wise   method    of   meeting   the 
drunkard  is  added  (v.  3 1 )  :     "  Rebuke  not  thy 
neighbor  at   the  wine-table,  nor   provoke   him 
while  in  mirth ;  utter  no  reproachful  words  to  him  ; 
nor  press  him  by  a  demand."     The  mention  of 
the  fresh  grape-juice  in  this  list  of  things  truly 
good  for  man  is  most  significant  (xxxix.  25-27): 
•'  Good  things  for  the  good  are  created  from  the 
beginning.    The  beginning  of  all  need  in  the  life 
of  man  is  water,  fire,  iron,  salt, wheat-flour,  honey, 
milk,  blood   of  grape-clusters   (aima  staphules), 
oil  and  raiment.     All  these  things  by  the  pious 
are  turned  into  good  things,  so  by  sinners  they 
are  turned  into  evil  things."     A  marked  recog- 
nition of  the  offering  alone  acceptable  to  God  is 
recorded  of  Simon  the  high-priest,  the  son  of 
Onias,  when   he  repaired  and    rededicated  the 
temple,  thus  (1.  14,  15):  "finishing  the  service 


Wine  in  the  Histories  of  Christ.        157 

at  the  altar,  that  he  might  adorn  the  service  of 
the  Most  High,  the  Almighty,  he  stretched  out 
his  hand  to  the  cup  and  offered  a  libation  of  the 
blood  of  the  grape-cluster  (espeisen  ex  aimatos 
staphules) :  he  poured  out  (execheen)  at  the 
foot  of  the  altar  an  odor  of  sweet  savor  unto  the 
most  high  King  of  all."  This  record  of  such  an 
age,  which  links  Asiatic  to  Grecian  sentiment,  is 
a  key  of  Old  Testament  truth  fitted  to  unlock 
the  treasures  of  the  New  Testament. 

WINE    IN    THE    HISTORY    OF    CHRIST   AND    IN    THE 
WRITINGS    OF    HIS    APOSTLES. 

As  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment were  written  in  the  acme  of  Asiatic  science 
and  philosophy,  so  the  Greek  Scriptures  of  the 
New  Testament  were  written  just  after  the  Au- 
gustan age,  at  the  era  when  the  influence  of 
Greek  wisdom  had  culminated  in  its  recasting  of 
thought.  As  the  inspired  Hebrew  writers  did 
not  fall  behind  the  spirit  of  their  age  in  their 
teachings  as  to  the  influence  of  wine,  it  is  incon- 
ceivable that  the  perfected  revelation  of  the  New 
Testament  should  on  the  same  evil  fall  below 
the  standard  of  Grecian  philosophy  and  of  Ro- 
man law. 

Three  classes  of  words  relating  to  wine  and 
its  law,  in  the  New  Testament,  require  consider- 
ation.     There  are,  first,  words  recognizing  the 


158  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

vine  and  its  products  as  healthful  and  precious 
gifts  of  God;  and  here  the  words  for  "vine, 
grape-cluster  and  branch "  are  to  be  noted. 
There  are,  second,  words  mentioning  the  products 
of  the  vine  ;  and  here  the  terms  "  fruit  of  the  vine, 
must,  new  wine,  vinegar  and  wine  "  are  to  be  dis- 
tinguished. There  are,  third,  words  indicating  the 
effects  of  wine  ;  and  here  the  terms  "  wine-bibber," 
"  drunken,"  and  its  opposite,  "  sober,"  are  to  be 
analyzed. 

The  word  "  vine,"  ampelos,  occurs  but  in  two 
places  in  the  life  of  Christ ;  in  His  last  discourse 
(John  XV.  1-5),  where  He  compares  Himself  to 
the  vine,  and  in  the  allusions  of  Matthew  (xxvi. 
29)  to  "  the  fruit  of  the  vine  "  used  at  the  Lord's 
supper.  The  term  vine  is  also  met  twice  else- 
where; as  in  James'  question  (iii.  12),  whether 
"  the  vine  can  bear  figs  ; "  and  by  John  (Rev.  xiv. 
19)  in  the  figure  of  the  vine's  fruit  gathered  and 
trodden.  The  "  vineyard  "  is  alluded  to  but  three 
times  in  the  later  parables  of  Christ ;  as  Luke 
xiii.  6-9 ;  Mat.  xx.  1-8,  and  Mat.  xxi.  28-41, 
repeated,  Mark  xii.  1-9,  and  Luke  xx.  9-16  ; 
and  a  like  allusion  is  found  i  Cor.  ix.  7.  The 
word  for  "grapes,"  staphule,  is  used  but  once, 
Mat.  vii.  16  and  Luke  vi.  44,  in  Christ's  life,  and 
once  by  John,  Rev.  xiv.  18;  that  for  cluster, 
botrus,  is  but  once  used.  Rev.  xiv.  1 8 ;  and  the 
term  "branch,"  klema,  specially  limited  to  the 


New  Testament  Products  of  the  Vine.  159 

vine,  is  also  but  once  put  in  requisition,  John  xv. 
2-6.  This  very  infrequent  allusion  to  the  vine, 
as  compared  with  other  products  of  Western 
Asia  in  the  New  Testament,  is  naturally  ob- 
served to  be  in  contrast  with  the  secular  Grecian 
and  Roman  literature  of  the  age. 

The  terms  for  the  first  and  simplest  product, 
"the  fruit  of  the  vine"  (gennema  tes  ampelou), 
used  by  Jesus  to  indicate  the  contents  of  the 
cup  drunk  at  the  close  of  the  passover  (Luke 
xxii.  18),  and  again  to  designate  the  same  cup  at 
the  close  of  his  own  added  appointment  of  the 
supper  to  be  perpetuated  in  the  Christian  Church 
(Mat.  xxvi.  29  ;  Mark  xiv.  25),  demand  special 
consideration.  The  natural '?neaning,  of  course, 
is,  that  it  is  the  fresh  product  of  the  grape.  This 
is  in  harmony  with  all  the  history  cited  from  the 
Old  Testament,  beginning  with  the  Egyptian 
custom  alluded  to  in  Joseph's  life.  This  is  directly 
affirmed  by  Jerome;  who,  only  three  centuries 
after  the  apostles  wrote,  spent  thirty  years  in 
Palestine,  specially  studying  everything  illustra- 
tive of  the  Old  and  New  Testament  histo- 
ries. Finally  it  is  demonstrated  by  the  passover- 
custom  of  all  subsequent  purer  ages  of  Jewish 
history,  and  by  the  universal  modern  Jewish 
usage  in  our  country. 

The  second  product,  gieukos,  only  once  met 
(Acts  ii.  1 3),  already  found  in  Greek  usage  to  be  dis- 


i6o         The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

tinct  from  oinos  glukos,  or  sweet  wine,  has  from 
such  writers  as  Hippocrates  and  Aristotle  been 
shown  to  be  must,  or  preserved  grape-juice.  The 
third  and  next  product  of  the  vine  is  "  vinegar," 
oxos  of  the  Greek,  vin-gar  of  the  French.  This 
was  proffered  to  Christ,  and  rejected  as  He  was 
nailed  to  the  cross ;  called  "  vinegar  "  by  Matthew 
(xxvii.  34),  but  called  "  wine,"  oinos,  by  Mark 
(xv.  23).  This  was  again  proffered  and  received 
in  His  final  agony ;  when  it  is  called  "  vinegar  " 
by  the  three  writers :  Matthew  (xxvii.  48),  Mark 
XV.  36),  and  John  (xix.  29).  This  peculiar 
statement  indicates  an  important  transition  in 
the  products  of  the  vine,  all  of  which  are  called 
by  the  general  nam^  "wine."  When. in  fermen- 
tation the  acetous  triumphs  over  the  vinous  fer- 
mentation, under  the  circumstances  already  de- 
scribed, the  alcohol  is  decomposed  and  is  thus 
removed  from  the  wine.  And  yet,  in  the  New 
Testament  as  in  other  Greek  records,  the  general 
word  "  wine  "  is  not  only,  as  we  have  seen,  applied 
to  "  must,"  in  which  no  ferment  has  occurred  to 
create  alcohol,  but  also  to  vinegar,  in  which  the 
alcoholic  property  has  been  destroyed  by  the 
second  or  acetous  fermentation. 

The  word  oinos,  or  wine,  is  used  in  all  thirty- 
three  times  in  the  New  Testament  Of  these  thir- 
ty-three allusions  to  wine,  twenty  cluster  about 
six  points;  John's  abstinence  (Luke  i.  15),  and 


Greek  term  "  oznos"  in  New  Testame^tt.  i6i 

Christ's  allusion  to  it  (Luke  vii.  33) ;  Christ's 
making  wine  for  a  wedding  (John  ii.  2-10,  and 
iv.  46)  ;  the  proffering  to  Christ  on  the  cross  of 
vinegar  called  by  Mark  wine  (Mat.  xxvii.  34 , 
Mark  xv.  23)  ;  the  parable  of  the  new  wine  in  old 
bottles  (Mat.ix.  17,  Mark  ii.  22,  Luke  v.  i^,  38), 
to  which  must  be  added  the  parable  (Luke  ix.  39), 
in  which  the  word  wine  is  understood  though 
not  expressed  ;  and  the  good  Samaritan's  medic- 
inal use  of  wine  (Luke  x.  34).  Of  the  remaining 
thirteen  cases  in  which  the  word  "  wine  "  occurs, 
five  are  found  in  Paul's  epistles,  and  eight  are 
met  in  figurative  allusions  made  in  the  writings 
of  the  apostle  John. 

The  word  rendered  "  strong  drink,"  szkera, 
often  met  in  the  Old  Testament,  occurs  only 
once  in  the  New  Testament ;  and  there  before 
the  birth  of  John  (Luke  i.  15).  It  is  certainly 
significant  that  allusions  to  wine,  or  any  product 
of  the  grape,  should  be  so  infrequent  in  the  New 
Testament. 

The  words  which  allude  to  the  effects  of  wine 
deserve  also  special  consideration.  The  word 
"wine-bibber,"  oinopotes,  once  used  by  Christ 
(Matt.  xi.  19,  and  Luke  vii.  34),  means,  as  in 
classic  Greek  and  in  the  Greek  translation  of 
the  Old  Testament  (as  Prov.  xxiii.  20,  etc.),  a 
habitual  drinker  of  wine  ;  the  habit,  rather  than 
the  effect  of  the  habit,  being  prominent  in  its 


i62  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines, 

signifi  :ation.  The  words  "  methe,"  used  three 
times  (Luke  xxi.  34 ;  Rom.  xiii.  13  ;  Gal.  v.  21), 
"methuo,"  used  seven  times  (Matt.  xxiv.  49; 
John  ii.  10;  Acts  ii.  15  ;  i  Cor.  xi.  21 ;  i  Thess. 
V.  7 ;  Rev.  xvii.  2,  6),  "  methusos,"  used  twice 
(i  Cor.  V.  II ;  vi.  10),  and  " methuskomai,"  used 
three  times  (Luke  xii.  45  ;  Eph.  v.  18  ;  i  Thess. 
V.  7),  have,  in  all  cases,  a  meaning  as  indefinite 
as  the  English  words  "  drink  "  and  "  drunken  "  ; 
while  the  special  root  meaning  of  "  methuo  "  is 
simply  that  of  surfeit. 

The  special  and  definite  term  "  nepho/'  used 
six  times,  and  its  adjectives  nephalios,  used  three 
times,  have  the  signification  of  "  sober,"  with  the 
special  idea  of  abstaining  from  intoxicating  drinks. 
It  is  the  opposite  of  sophroneo  and  its  derivatives, 
also  rendered  "  to  be  sober  "  as  a  cause  ;  though 
it  is  correlate  as  an  effect.  The  word  sophroneo 
and  its  derivatives  indicate  freedom  from  nervous 
and  mental  excitement  produced  by  moral  o.-dM's.ts ; 
while  nepho  and  its  derivatives  indicate  the  same 
condition  as  produced  by  exemption  from  out- 
side influences,  especially  by  abstinence  from  in- 
toxicating liquors.  Following  now  the  gradual 
development  of  the  New  Testament  teaching  as 
to  the  use  of  intoxicating  wines,  its  significant 
principle  is  in  as  marked  contrast  to  that  of  the 
cotemporary  Greek  and  Latin  authors  as  are  the 
New  Testament  allusions  to  the  vine,  its  pro- 


yohns  and  Christ's  Different  Mission.  163 

ducts  and  their  injurious  effects.  The  evils  of 
wine-drinking  are  seen  alike  by  Matthew  and 
Plutarch,  by  Mark  and  Pliny,  by  Luke  and 
Galen,  by  Paul  and  Seneca.  But,  while  Greek 
and  Roman  critics,  historians,  physicians,  and 
moralists  suggested  outward  restraints  as  a 
remedy,  the  Gospel  of  Christ  looked  to  the 
"  power  of  an  endless  life  "  within,  begotten  by 
the  Divine  Spirit's  in-dwelling. 

The  forerunner  of  Christ,  the  link  between 
the  contrasted  Old  and  New  Testament  dispensa- 
tions of  law  and  promise,  true  successor  in  ab- 
stinence as  in  moral  influence  to  Elijah,  was  kept 
from  ever  tasting  anything  intoxicating,  not  by 
the  power  of  a  personal  will  like  that  of  Elijah ; 
but,  as  is  recorded,  by  a  double  safeguard :  first, 
"he  was  filled  with  the  Holy  Spirit  from  his 
birth  "  (i  Kings  xvii.  i ;  2  Kings  i.  8  ;  Mai.  iv. 
5  ;  Luke  i.  15,  17  ;)  and  second,  he  was  guarded 
by  his  father's  priestly  office  and  by  his  desert 
life  in  food  and  raiment  from  temptation  to  in- 
dulgence (Matt.  iii.  4 ;  Mark  i.  6 ;  Luke  i.  39, 
80).  There  can  be  no  question  that  this  absti- 
nence, as  in  the  case  of  the  ancient  Brahmins  and 
Egyptian  priests,  as  also  in  the  Nazarites  of 
Israel  from  Samuel  to  Daniel,  and  as  yet  more 
in  the  youthful  Cyrus  and  Alexander,  was  the 
secret  of  mental  power  and  moral  stability.  In 
Jesus,  however,  sinless  in  nature,  whose  mission 


i64         The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

was  "  to  succour  the  tempted "  by  becoming 
"  tempted  in  all  points  like  as  we  are,"  a  different 
life  from  that  of  John  is  seen.  He  was  often  at 
feasts;  He  was  constantly  associated  with  .men 
given  to  wine-drinking,  and  women  seduced  by 
lust ;  and  yet  "  without  sin."  Willful  cavillers 
and  honest  moralists,  then,  as  now,  misinterpreted 
His  course ;  and  contrasting  Him  with  John, 
who,  because  he  was  an  ascetic  they  said  had  "  a 
devil,"  they  called  Jesus  a  "  gluttonous  man,  a 
wine-bibber,  a  friend  of  publicans  and  sinners  " 
(Matt.  xi.  1 8,  19).  It  is  to  be  observed  that  the 
"eating"  of  Christ  was  made  prominent  by  His 
critics;  while  His  association  with  "publicans" 
who  gave  feasts  was  more  in  thought  than  H  is 
intercourse  with  "  sinners."  Luke's  mention 
(vii.  33,  34)  of  John's  abstinence  from  wine,  and 
especially  of  abandoned  women  as  the  "  sinners  " 
who  were  sometimes  at  the  table  where  He 
feasted  (vii.  2)7)y  shows,  as  the  best  interpreters 
have  agreed,  that  the  charge  that  Christ  drank 
intoxicating  wine  was  as  unfounded  as  the  charge 
that  He  was  sensual  and  lascivious.  To  argue 
that  Jesus  must  have  drunk  intoxicating  wine 
because  He  was  at  a  table  where  wine  was  drunk, 
compels  also  the  admission  that  He  yielded  to 
gluttony  and  to  lust.  No  one  who  reverences 
the  person  and  the  history  of  Jesus  can  accept 
any  such  view  of  this  statement ;  all  know  that 


Unfer77iented  Wine  Drunk  by  Christ.   165 

the  three  charges  were  ahke  a  calumny  ;  and  the 
legitimate  and  necessary  inference  is  that  as  a 
sinless  being  Jesus  was,  though  not  an  ascetic,  as 
pure  in  life  as  was  John.  The  conviction  that 
Jesus  did  not  use  intoxicating  wine  grows  with 
every  new  development  in  tracing  His  life  and 
teaching. 

There  must  be  significance  in  the  fact  that  the 
first  miracle  of  Jesu^  is  the  making  of  wine  for  a 
wedding  feast ;  that  John  at  a  later  day  is  the 
one  to  record  this ;  that  he  twice  alludes  to  it 
(ii.  i-ii  ;  iv.  46,  54),  as  a  specially  significant  in- 
dex to  Christ's  Divine  spiritual  mission  ;  and  that 
his  special  comment  as  to  the  impression  made 
by  it  is  so  emphatic  :  "  This  beginning  of  mir- 
acles did  Jesus ;  and  manifested  forth  his  glory, 
and  his  disciples  believed  on  him." 

The  making  of  the  wine  illustrates  three  fun- 
damental truths :  first,  the  nature  of  miracles ; 
second,  the  character  of  the  wine  Christ  used ; 
and  third,  the  moral  principles  of  His  teaching. 
A  miracle  is  an  unusual  exhibition  of  God's  or- 
dinary working  in  nature.  A  mir  icle  is  not,  as 
Hume  and  other  sophists  have  suggested,  an 
interposition  ''contrary  to"  established  natural 
law.  The  miracles  of  Moses  were  of  two  kinds. 
His  first  were  acts  of  real,  as  opposed  to  pretend- 
ed supernatural  power ;  those  of  the  magicians 
being    ar     exercise     of    but    natural     power: 


1 66  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines, 

while  those  of  Moses  were  at  last  confessed  by 
them  to  be  not  contra-x\?iXMr2\,  but  i-z^/^r-natural 
(Exod.  vii.  11,22;  viii.  7,  18,  19).  His  later 
were  natural  scourges,  common  to  Egypt ;  but 
coming  and  going,  restricted  or  removed,  at  the 
word  of  M  OSes  (viii.  21,22,31,  etc.)  The  opening 
miracle  of  the  New  Testament,  like  the  first 
wrought  by  Moses,  was  a  most  perfect  exhibition 
of  the  real  nature  and  design  of  Divine  interpo- 
sition for  man.  Wine  is  nothing  else  than 
water,  having  in  solution  the  sugar,  spice  and 
gluten  which  form  grape-juice ;  and  the  product 
which,  in  the  natural  development,  is  slowly 
made,  was  by  Christ's  interposition  instantane- 
ously formed.  Again,  second,  the  wine  made 
was  manifestly  the  simplest  product  of  the  grape  ; 
as  is  indicated  by  the  exclamation  of  the  Gover- 
nor of  the  feast  on  tasting  it :  "  Every  man  at 
the  beginning  doth  set  forth  good  wine ;  and 
when  men  have  well  drunk,  then  that  which  is 
worse  ;  but  thou  hast  kept  the  good  wine^  until 
now."  The  universal  custom  of  a  banquet  is  to 
use,  at  the  beginning  of  a  feast,  light  wines,  cider 
or  beer ;  whose  influence  is  aperient  and  permits 
greater  indulgence.  The  heavy  and  specially 
intoxicating  wines  are  always  and  everywhere 
reserved  to  the  last.  The  light  wines  of  the  land 
of  Palestine  have  been  sufficiently  indicated. 
The  sherbets  of  modern  times,  called  wines  now, 


The  New  Wine  mentioned  by  Christ,    167 

as  we  shall  see,  have  succeeded  to  the  unintoxi- 
cating  wines  of  Christ's  day  as  the  beverage  of 
the  first  courses  at  a  banquet.  Thus,  thirdly,  the 
character  of  the  wine  made,  as  well  as  the  nature 
of  the  miracle,  set  clearly  forth  the  character  of 
Christ  and  the  nature  of  His  mission.  The  Cre- 
ator of  Eden  and  of  all  earth's  healthful  products 
had  come  to  give  to  those  who  should  "  seek 
first  the  kingdom  of  God  and  His  righteousness" 
"  an  hundred-fold  "  of  blessing  in  this  world  ;  one 
of  these  healthful  products  being  the  unintoxi- 
cating  wine  used  at  the  commencement  of  a 
feast. 

The  next  allusion  of  Christ  to  wine  is  in  the 
comparison  of  the  moral  influence  of  His  teach- 
ing in  the  excitement  it  produces,  to  wine.  At 
the  feast  made  for  Him  by  Matthew  the  publican, 
afterward  one  of  His  inspired  apostles,  in  reply 
to  a  question  of  John's  disciples,  "why  the  dis- 
ciples of  Jesus  did  not  fast,"  Jesus  replies  by 
three  or  four  comparisons  ;  the  third  of  which  is 
this  (Matt.  ix.  17;  Mark  ii.  22;  Luke  v.  2)1^'- 
"  No  man  putteth  new  wine  into  old  bottles  ;  else 
the  new  wine  doth  burst  the  bottles,  and  the  wine 
is  spilled  and  the  bottles  perish.  But  new  wine 
must  be  put  into  new  bottles  and  both  are 
preserved."  Here  two  questions  have  arisen  ; 
first,  the  vital  one  as  to  the  nature  of  the 
"  wine "    here  referred    to ;    and    second,  a  sub 


1 68  The  Divine  Law  as  to  JVines* 

sidiary  question  as  to  the  nature  of  the  "  botties  ^ 
mentioned.  That  the  wine  here  called  new, 
"  neos,"  was  unfermented,  no  student  who  seeks- 
only  truth  would  think  of  denying;  and  no 
one  who  has  followed  the  Greek  usage  as  to 
the  meanings  attached  to  "  oinos,"  wine,  will 
think  of  denying  that  in  Christ's  day  unferment- 
ed must  as  well  as  fermented  wine  was  called 
oinos.  This  is  certainly  the  case  in  this  passage ; 
since  the  ferment,  expected  after  it  is  put  into 
the  bottles,  is  that  which  will  burst  the  bottles. 
The  suggestion  has  been  urged  that  the  Roman 
custom  of  using  new  flasks  in  preparing  and 
preserving  wines  permanently  unfermented,  lest 
the  remains  of  ferment  adhering  to  the  inside  of 
an  old  wine-flask  should  cause  ferment  in  the 
corked  and  sealed  must,  is  here  referred  to. 
There  is,  as  the  best  ancient  interpreters  agree, 
an  allusion  to  the  fact,  as  the  word  "  old  "  indi- 
cates ;  but  not  to  the  custom,  as  the  word  "  bottles' 
proves.  The  "  bottle,"  askos,  here  mentioned,  as 
in  all  classic  and  later  Greek,  is  the  skin-bottle 
called  by  the  Latins  "  uter ;"  while  the  earthen 
•'  amphora  "  of  the  Latins,  the  Greek  "  keramos," 
was  alone  used  to  preserve  must  sunk  in  cold 
water  for  thirty  or  forty  days. 

Luke  records  (v.  39)  an  added  illustration  of 
Christ's  principle  :  "  No  man  having  drunk  old" 
— the  word  wine  being  understood — "straight- 


Old  and  New  Wine  compared  by  Christ.  169 

way  desireth  new ; "  the  idea  being  that  neither 
the  Jewish  Pharisees,  nor  even  the  disciples  of 
John,  accustomed  to  the  Old  Testament  dispensa- 
tion, were  prepared  at  once,  "  straightways,"  to 
appreciate  fully  the  principle  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment. This  fact,  thus  stated  by  Jews,  in  the  very 
particular  here  referred  to,  that  of  sharing  in 
social  feasts,  w^as  still  a  stumbling-block,  when 
seventeen  years  after  Christ's  death,  a.d.  50,  the 
council  at  Jerusalem  (Acts  xv.  20)  discussed  it ; 
and,  indeed,  yet  later,  when  Paul,  by  inspiration, 
instructed  both  the  Roman  and  the  Corinthian 
Christians  as  to  its  principle  (Rom.  xiv.  2,  3, 
21  ;  I  Cor.  viii.  4-13).  Three  important  princi- 
ples here  are  clearly  revealed  :  first,  the  religion 
of  Christ  is  opposed  to  asceticism  as  well  as  to 
luxury  ;  second,  the  distinction  between  ferment- 
ed or  alcoholic  and  unfermented  wines  is  estab- 
lished ;  and  third — since  in  comparisons  the  nat- 
ural truth  in  the  one  part  must  correspond  to  the 
spiritual  truth  in  the  other — that,  though  the  Old 
Testament  type  of  purity  could  be  realized  by 
those  who  drank  fermented  wines,  the  New 
Testament  type  cannot  be  realized  except  in 
those  who  restrict  themselves  to  the  use  of  unin- 
toxicating  beverages.  This  latter  principle  the 
early  students  of  these  words  of  Christ  declare. 

The  next  New  Testament  allusion  to  wine  is 
the  incidental  mention  by  Luke  (x.  34),  that  the 
8 


1 70         l^ke  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines, 

Good  Samaritan  used  it  as  a  healing  application 
with  oil  in  binding  up  the  wounds  of  the  way- 
laid traveler.  As  a  Greek  physician  (Col.  iv.  14), 
Luke  was  familiar  with  the  action  of  remedies 
in  his  day  ;  the  external  application  of  wine  and 
oil  following  substantially  the  law  of  their  inter- 
nal action,  the  one  soothing  and  the  other 
stimulating.  It  should  be  specially  recalled  that 
among  the  Greeks,  as  in  modern  medical  science, 
the  alcoholic  property  in  wine  was  an  irritant 
poison ;  a  fact  recognized  by  the  Greek  physi- 
cians in  its  external  applications,  as  well  as  in 
its  internal  action.  The  wine  of  the  Good  Sa- 
maritan must  have  had  very  little,  if  any,  of  the 
alcoholic  property  ;  otherwise  Christ  could  not 
have  commended  the  act  as  worthy  of  imitation, 
nor  would  Luke,  the  physician,  have  been  the 
one  to  record  it  as  commendatory. 

The  next  allusion,  and  that  a  vital  incident,  is 
the  mention  of  the  cup  at  the  institution  of  the 
Lord's  Supper.  As  already  intimated,  the  word 
wine  is  not  employed.  It  is  to  be  here  recalled 
that  in  the  Old  Testament  mention,  and  that  in 
frequent  and  full  descriptions,  wine  is  never  men- 
tioned as  used  at  the  Passover  ;  and  that  the  only 
wine  mentioned  at  any  Jewish  feast  is  "  the 
sweet,"  or  juice  fresh  from  the  wine- vat,  employ- 
ed under  Nehemiah  (viii.  10),  at  the  Feast  of 
Tabernacles  in  the  autumn,  at  the  time  of  vin- 


The  Cup  Drunk  by  Christ  at  the  Supper.  171 

tage.  In  the  times  of  Christ  a  cup  was  drunk  at 
the  close  of  the  Passover  supper  by  Jesus  and 
the  twelve  (Luke  xxii.  18,  19);  while,  also, 
evidently  the  same  cup  was  again  partaken 
after  the  broken  bread  of  the  Lord's  Supper 
(Matt.  xxvi.  27-29;  Mark  xiv.  23-25 ;  Luke 
xxii.  20;  I  Cor.  xi.  25).  The  care  with  which 
all  three  writers  (Matt.  xxvi.  29,  Mark  xiv.  25, 
and  Luke  xxii.  18)  have  used  the  expression 
"  fruit "  or  product  of  the  vi^,  must  be  supposed 
to  have  arisen  from  an  emphasis  put  upon  it  by 
Christ.  The  word  "gennema"  both  in  classic 
Greek  (as  Polyb.  i.  71,  i,  and  Diod.  Sic.  v.  17), 
and  also  in  the  Greek  Old  and  New  Testament 
Scriptures  (Gen.  xli.  35;  xlvii.  24;  Exod.  xxiii. 
10;  and  Luke  xii.  18),  is  applied  without  ex- 
ception to  the  natural  product  as  it  is  gathered 
and  stored.  The  expression  "  gennema  tou  am- 
pelou,"  the  translation  of  the  Hebrew  "  peri  hag- 
gephen"  (Deut.  xxii.  9,  and  Hosea  x.  i),  unmis- 
takably refers,  not  to  the  artificial  product,  but 
to  the  fresh  juice  of  the  fruit.  We  shall  see  how 
the  early  Christian  interpreters,  studying  Christ's 
meaning  in  the  land  where  He  spoke,  and  while 
the  Greek  of  His  day  was  still  its  language,  men- 
lion,  as  if  no  one  then  thought  otherwise,  that 
Jesus  used  this  expression  because  the  conse- 
crated cup   at  the  Supper  contained  the  fresh 


172  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

juice  of  the  grape  as  distinct  from  the  wine,  its 
artificial  product. 

The  last  incident  in  the  life  of  Jesus  is  so  im- 
pressive, that  earnest  men  down  to  Archbishop, 
now  Cardinal,  McCloskey,  of  New  York,  have 
urged  this  dying  testimonial  as  proof  that  Jesus 
abstained  from  intoxicating  wine  in  life,  as  in 
death ;  and  that  He  thus  left  an  example  through 
all  ages  for  His  most  aspiring  followers.  Matthew 
relates  that  when  Jftus  had  arrived  at  the  place 
of  crucifixion,  there  was  offered  to  Him  "  vinegar 
(oxos)  mixed  with  gall "  (choles).  Mark  calls 
the  same  mixture  "  wine  mingled  with  myrrh  " 
(esmurnismenon  oinon).  Vinegar  is  sour  wine  ; 
gall  is  the  product  of  the  gall-nut,  whose  proper- 
ties are  now  known  to  be  of  insect,  and,  there- 
fore, of  animal  origin,  having  the  properties  of 
the  bile  or  liver  secretion  ;  while  myrrh  is  the 
resinous  gum  of  a  plant.  Both  gall  and  myrrh 
are  narcotic  in  their  influence ;  as  the  allusions 
of  the  Old  Testament,  of  Dioscorides  and  of 
Pliny,  abundantly  indicate.  The  mingled  stimu- 
lant of  the  vinegar  or  sour-wine,  and  the  narcotic 
of  the  bitter  admixture,  deadened  the  nerves  as 
the  nails  were  driven.  The  fact  that  Jesus  re- 
jected this  relief  indicates  certainly  His  purpose 
to  suffer,  without  any  alleviation,  all  that  man 
could  suffer  of  bodily  agony ;  while  to  most 
minds  of  high  thought  and  of  elevated  devotion 


Lukes  Medical Knowlenge  of  Wines.  173 

it  seems  to  be  His  call  on  His  followers,  who 
would  be  like  Him,  to  abstain  from  intoxicating 
beverages.  The  fact  that  at  the  close  of  His  ex- 
piring agony,  when  all  was  finished,  Christ  "  re- 
ceived," instead  of  rejecting  the  "  vinegar  "  as  is 
recorded  aHke  by  Matthew  (xxvii.  48),  Mark 
(xv.  36),  and  John  (xix.  29,  30),  is  an  intimation 
that  when  the  mission  of  earthly  life  is  fully  over, 
the  last  struggle  may  be  properly  soothed  by  nar- 
cotics and  stimulants.  The  aversion  with  which 
the  most  thoughtful  of  sufferers  reject  modem 
intoxicants,  and  beg  to  be  allowed  the  full  use 
of  reason  to  the  last,  shows  how  unnatural  is  the 
resort  of  men  in  health  to  the  deadening  spell ; 
and  Christ's  rejection  of  any  such  relief  till  He 
knew  His  end  had  come,  is  in  this  respect  in- 
structive. 

Luke,  the  historian  of  Jesus,  who  writes  with 
the  skill  of  a  physician,  alludes  in  his  second  his- 
tory to  a  product  of  the  vine  calling  for  notice. 
The  mocking  crowd,  who  had  derided  Christ  in 
His  dying  agonies,  when  the  apostjes,  under  th';  in- 
fluence of  the  Divine  Spirit,  were  speaking  with 
tongues,  said  (Acts  ii.  13),  "These  men  are  full 
of  gleukos; "  a  word  which,  as  we  have  3een, 
means  not  "  sweet  wine,"  oinon  glukon,  but  grape- 
juice.  Peter,  the  leading  speaker,  responds, 
"  These  are  not  drunken  as  ye  suppose  "  (hypo- 
lambanete),  or  suggest.      The  very  use  of  the 


174         ^^^  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

word  "grape-juice,"  and  their  implication  that 
the  Apostles  were  "  drunk,"  is  a  part  of  the  ridi- 
cule thrown  upon  their  utterances ;  the  inade- 
quacy of  the  cause  to  produce  the  effect  being 
designed  to  add  point  to  the  derisive  jest.  This 
view  is  confirmed  by  the  early  commentators,  as 
we  shall  see. 

The  apostle  Paul  makes  three  allusions  to  wine. 
The  first  is  found,  Rom.  xiv.  21:  "  It  is  good 
neither  to  eat  flesh,  nor  to  drink  wine,  nor  any- 
thing whereby  thy  brother  stumbleth,  or  is  of- 
fended, or  is  made  weak."  Paul  here  alludes 
probably  to  the  attendance  on  idol  feasts  ;  as  the 
whole  chapter  (Rom.  xiv.  1-23),  indicates,  and 
as  the  like  direction  to  the  Christians  at  Corinth 
(i  Cor.  viii.  4-13  ;  x.  14-33)  shows.  Since  Jews 
who  had  become  Christians  were  as  a  national 
duty  bound  still  to  attend  their  country's  festivals, 
the  Gentile  Greeks  and  Romans  would  natu- 
rally feel  it  a  social  and  civil  obligation  not  to  sep- 
arate themselves  from  their  countrymen  in  their 
national  festivities.  Since  Jesus  went  to  the 
feasts,  yet  persistently  abstained,  as  even  the 
most  conscientious  Jew  would  abstain,  from  that 
which  might  seem  gluttony  or  to  be  intoxicating, 
hence  also  the  Greek  or  Roman  for  a  stronger 
reason  should  guard  against  indulgence  :  first,  he 
might  be  the  cause  of  leading  his  brother  into 
injurious  excess ;  and  second,  his  feasting  in  an 


The  Apostle  Paul  on  Wine.  175 

idol's  temple,  though  designed  by  him  only  as  a 
social  courtesy,  might  be  construed  into  rever- 
ence for  an  idol.  The  perversion  of  the  Lord's 
supper  that  had  arisen  in  the  Corinthian  Church 
seems  to  indicate  that,  as  Jesus  partook  of  His 
appointed  ordinance  at  the  close  of  the  Jewish 
feast,  so  the  Corinthians  partook  of  the  Lord's 
supper  in  connection  with  a  social  feast.  The 
generic  meaning  of  the  word  here  rendered  "  is 
drunken  "  (i  Cor.  xi.  21,  methuei),  is  to  "  surfeit," 
either  in  eating  or  drinking,  as  has  been  noticed. 
This  usage  is  here  both  proved  and  set  off  by  the 
contrasted  word  "  is  hungry "  (peina),  or  is  in 
want.  The  main  lesson  of  the  connection  is  found 
(i  Cor.  X.  31),  "Whether,  therefore,  ye  eat  or 
drink,  or  whatsoever  ye  do,  do  all  to  the  glory  of 
God."  In  attaining  this  end  two  subordinate 
aims  are  secured ;  first,  self-mastery  and  the  "  ath- 
lete's" reward  for  abstinence  (i  Cor.  ix.  24-27); 
and  second,  the  guarding  of  the  conscience  and 
conduct  of  a  fellow  disciple  (i  Cor.  x.  28). 

The  second  allusion  of  Paul  to  wine  is  found 
in  the  expression  (Eph.  v.  18),  "  Be  not  drunk 
with  wine  wherein  is  excess."  The  word  asoiia, 
literally  "  without  salvation,"  rendered  "  excess," 
implies  in  its  derivation  abandonment,  which 
makes  one  hopeless  of  salvation.  The  noun  is 
elsewhere  (Tit.  i.  6 ;  i  Pet.  iv.  4)  rendered  "  riot ; " 
and  its  adverb  "  riotous  "  (Luke  xv.  13,  lit. "  living 


176         The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

riotously  ").  The  question  might  arise  whether 
it  is  drunkenness  with  wine,  or  simply  the  use  of 
wine  in  any  quantity,  that  is  declared  "  excess  " 
or  hopeless  abandonment.  Grammatically  the 
words  rendered  "  wherein  "  (or  "  in  which  ")  refer 
only  to  the  word  wine ;  and  so  Jerome  in  his 
early  translation,  made  in  Palestine,  renders  and 
comments  on  the  word ;  stating  that  Paul  de- 
clares that  the  use  of  wine  is  in  itself  the  road 
to  hopeless  abandonment  in  a  Christian. 

The  third  and  last  allusion  by  Paul  to  wine,  is 
in  his  pastoral  epistles.  One  of  the  qualifications 
of  a  "  bishop,"  or  pastor,  is  that  he  should  "  not  be 
given  to  much  wine  "  (i  Tim.  iii.  8  ;  Tit.  ii.  3) ; 
an  expression  which  Jerome  explains  by  refer- 
ence to  I  Tim.  V.  23.  This  latter  is  a  pregnant 
hint  of  inspiration,  giving  the  key  to  the  whole 
New  Testament  teaching  as  to  the  use  of  wine. 
The  expression  is,  "  Drink  no  longer  water,  but 
use  a  little  wine  for  thy  stomach's  sake  and  thine 
often  infirmities."  How  counter  to  the  almost  pro- 
fane perversion  of  this  counsel,  sometimes  heard 
on  the  flippant  lips  of  one  seeking  an  excuse  for 
self-indulgence,  is  the  necessary  conclusion  sug- 
gested by  thoughtful  and  devout  minds  like 
Jerome !  Timothy  has  manifestly  understood, 
that, like  the  "  athlete "  seeking  success,  abstinence 
from  intoxicating  wine  is  essential  to  him  who 
would  without  fail  gain  the  Christian's  crown 


yewish  Writers  after  Christ  on  Wines.  177 

and  he  abstains  from  even  that  wine,  destitute  of 
the  poisonous  alcohol,  furnished  by  the  laws  of 
social  morality,  and  especially  by  the  materia 
medica,  of  his  day.  It  requires  a  direct  apostolic 
counsel  to  prompt  Timothy  to  use  even  this  wine  ; 
and  the  apostolic  direction,  as  Jerome  observes, 
has  two  characteristics :  first,  it  is  prescribed 
only  as  a  medicine ;  second,  he  is  to  take  only 
"  a  little  "  as  a  medicine. 

WINE    IN    THE   JEWISH    WRITINGS    OF    THE    AGE 
NIGH    THAT    OF    CHRIST. 

The  three  centuries  from  b.c.  too  to  a.d.  200 
produced  eminent  Jewish  writers  of  four  classes : 
historians,  philosophers,  paraphrasts  and  com- 
mentators. All  these  writers  throw  light  on  the 
Divine  law  as  to  wines,  as  recognized  by  the 
Jewish  people  and  by  Asiatics  at  that  age ;  and 
they  illustrate  both  the  Old  and  New  Testament 
teachings  as  to  wines.  Among  historians  the 
works  of  Josephus  are  prominent ;  who  wrote 
about  A.D.  75,  and  who  records  facts  illustrative 
of  the  Old  Testament  narratives.  Among  the 
philosophic  thinkers  of  this  age,  Philo,  who 
wrote  about  a.d.  40,  presents  principles  as  well 
as  facts  connected  with  the  Jewish  faith.  Both 
Philo  and  Josephus  wrote  in  Greek ;  but  the 
terms  they  use  as  translations  of  the  Hebrew 
are  all  the  more  instructive.     The  paraphrasts, 


1 78  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

or  writers  of  "  Targums,"  or  paraphrases  of  the 
Old  Testament,  and  the  "  Talmudists,"  or  com- 
mentators, wrote  in  the  Hebrew  of  their  age, 
which  was  Aramaic,  or  Hebrew  modified  by  the 
kindred  Semitic  dialects  of  their  time ;  and  their 
writings  are  important  links  in  the  chain  of  testi- 
mony as  to  the  meaning  of  Hebrew  terms. 

The  historian  Josephus  but  confirms  allu- 
sions already  noted  in  the  Old  Testament  his- 
tories. Philo  is  full  of  important  statements. 
In  his  treatise  on  "Monarchy"  he  cites,  as 
indicating  the  duty  of  entire  abstinence  from 
wine,  the  prohibition  to  the  priests ;  and  says  it 
was  given  for  "  most  important  reasons  ;  that  it 
produces  hesitation,  forgetfulness,  drowsiness  and 
folly."  Dwelling  on  each  of  these  bodily,  men- 
tal and  religious  evils,  he  says :  "  In  abstemious 
men  all  the  parts  of  the  body  are  more  elastic, 
more  active  and  pliable,  the  external  senses  are 
clearer  and  less  obscured,  and  the  mind  is  gifted 
with  acuter  perception."  Further :  "  The  use  of 
wine  ....  leaves  none  of  our  faculties  free  and  un- 
embarrassed ;  but  is  a  hindrance  to  every  one  of 
them,  so  as  to  impede  the  attaining  of  that  ob- 
ject for  which  each  was  fitted  by  nature.  In 
sacred  ceremonies  and  holy  rites  this  mischief  is 
most  grievous  of  all,  in  proportion  as  it  is  worse 
to  sin  with  respect  to  God,  than  respect  to  man." 
Speaking  pf  the  ascetic  sect  of  Therapeutae,  he 


Philo  and  Targums  on  Wines.         179 

says,  "They  abstain  from  it  (wine)  because  they 
regard  it  a  sort  of  poison  that  leads  men  into 
madness."  On  "  Drunkenness  "  he  cites  the  case 
of  Noah,  the  second  head  of  the  race  ;  and  says 
(c.  36,  38)  "  it  is  evident  that  unmixed  wine  is 
poison."  Alluding  to  Aaron's  name  as  indica- 
ting "loftiness  of  thought,"  he  says,  "No  one 
thus  disposed  will  ever  voluntarily  touch  un- 
mixed wine  or  any  other  drug  (pharmakon)  of 
folly."  Again  (c.  52)  he  describes  the  varied  in- 
ventions in  wines,  "  in  order  to  provide  some 
whose  effects  shall  speedily  go  off  and  not  produce 
headache,  but  on  the  contrary  shall  be  void  of 
any  tendency  to  heat  the  blood,  ....  admit- 
ting either  a  copious  or  a  scanty  admixture  with 
water."  The  effort,  perceptible  in  all  ages,  still 
seen  in  all  Oriental  religionists,  to  secure,  espe- 
cially in  religious  rites,  an  unintoxicating  wine, 
finds  here  a  link  in  the  very  days  when  the  New 
Testament  records  were  completed. 

The  principal  Targums  or  paraphrases  are 
those  of  Jonathan  on  the  sixteen  prophetic 
books,  written  about  a.d.  250,  and  those  of  Onke- 
'.os  on  the  books  of  Moses,  written  early  in  the 
second  century  after  Christ.  These  Targums 
ire  utilized  in  the  invaluable  Polyglotts  of  Cas- 
f.el  and  of  Walton,  brought  out  by  the  spirit  of 
revived  learning  at  the  Reformation.  The  words 
"yayin"  and  "tirosh"  are   usually  rendered   by 


i8o         The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

the  common  term  "chamra,"  corresponding  to 
the  Hebrew  "chemer;"  which,  as  we  have  seen, 
is  doubtless  an  effervescing  or  light  wine.  In 
this  the  usage  of  the  Greek  translators,  who  used 
"  oinos  "  for-  both  "  yayin  "  and  "  tirosh,"  is  fol- 
lowed. Yet,  in  test  cases,  the  writers  of  the  Tar- 
gums  make  the  same  distinction  which  was  made 
by  the  Greek  translators.  Thus  Onkelos  on  Num. 
vi.  3,  paraphrases  the  Hebrew  "  yayin  v  shekar," 
by  the  Chaldaic  "  chamra  chadath  v'attiq  "  ;  wine, 
new  and  old;  the  term  "  chadath,"  new,  being  found 
in  the  older  Hebrew  of  Josh.  xv.  25,  and  in  the 
later  Hebrew  of  Ezra  vi.  4 ;  while  the  term 
"'attiq"  is  found  Prov.  viii.  18.  This  language 
of  Onkelos  shows  that  the  Chaldaic  "chamra," 
like  the  Greek  "  oinos,"  was  a  generic  term,  cov- 
ering the  simplest  of  products  of  the  grape  and 
the  concentrated  intoxicants  made  from  it. 
Again,  at  Prov.  iii.  11  another  paraphrast  uses 
the  verb  "  thamriq"  as  to  "  tirosh  ";  a  word  which 
from  its  use,  Prov.  xx.  30  and  Esther  ii.  2,  3,  9, 
12,  was  evidently  an  aperient,  used  intei-nally\ 
thus  illustrating  the  effects  of  "  tirosh  "  already 
cited,  as  also  of  the  unfermented  Greek  "  gleu- 
kos  "  and  of  the  Roman  "  must."  Yet  more  :  Jona- 
than paraphrases  in  the  important  passage,  Hosea 
iv.  Ti,  the  words  "yayin"  and  "tirosh"  by 
"chamra"  and  "ravyetha."  The  Hebrew  verb 
"ravah,"   used    fourteen   times  by  writers  from 


The  Talmud  on  Wines.  i8i 

David  to  Jeremiah,  always  means  to  "  drench"; 
while  its  adjective  "  raveh,"  used  three  times,  and 
its  noun  "  raveyeh,"  used  twice,  have  also  the  same 
signification.  They  never  refer  to  the  effects  of 
intoxicating  wine ;  they  are  usually  figurative ; 
and  in  the  three  cases  where  a  physical  ingre- 
dient is  introduced  and  where  the  English  trans- 
lators use  the  word  "  drunk,"  the  effect  described 
is  that  of  an  aperient  or  purgative,  such  as 
"  waters  of  wormwood"  (Deut.  xxix.  19;  Jer. 
xlvi.  10;  Lam.  iii.  15).  The  Targums,  therefore, 
confirm  in  every  respect  the  view  of  "  tirosh  "  to 
which  all  authorities  compel  the  Bible  scholar. 

The  collection  called  the  Talmud  or  "  Teach- 
ing," includes  both  the  Jerusalem  Talmud,  writ- 
ten in  Palestine,  and  the  Babylon  Talmud, 
written  on  the  Euphrates,  styled  the  Mishna 
or  "  text,"  originating  in  the  second  century  after 
Christ,  and  the  Gemara,  or  "commentaries" 
appearing  in  successive  centuries  down  to  the 
seventh  after  Christ.  To  these  must  be  added 
the  writings  of  Rabbis  down  to  the  thirteenth 
century.  All  these  records  illustrate  precedents 
in  Hebrew  history  and  customs  maintained 
down  to  the  present  day,  and  thus  aid  in  show- 
ing the  Divine  law  as  to  wines. 

In  the  chapter  of  the  Talmud  on  "  OfTerings," 
sweeL  wins  is  mentioned,  In  the  chapter  on 
"  Vows  "  it  is  stated  :  "  If  any  one  has  vowed  that 


1 82  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

he  will  abstain  from  wine,  then  there  is  per- 
mitted to  him  boiled  must  in  which  is  the 
flavor  of  wine,  ....  also  cider  of  apples  "  ;  indi- 
cating that  the  distinction  between  intoxicating 
and  unintoxicating  beverages  from  the  grape  was 
preserved  from  the  ancient  to  the  later  Jewish 
history.  Again,  in  the  chapter  on  "  Vows  "  it  is 
stated :  "If  any  one  has  said, '  Let  wine  be  to 
me  an  offering  because  it  is  injurious  to  the  bow- 
els' (visceribus  noxium),  and  it  should  be  said 
to  him  '  old  wine  is  good  for  the  bowels,'  then 
old  wine,  or  wine  of  any  kind,  which  is  injurious 
to  the  mind  (cordi)  is  permitted."  Here  three 
facts,  already  established  as  recognized  in  the 
Old  Testament  writings,  are  found  to  be  perpet- 
uated in  Jewish  customs  and  sentiment.  First, 
the  distinction  is  preserved  between  old  wine  and 
new  wine,  so-called  in  the  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ments. Second,  the  action  of  the  former  on  the 
nervous  system  and  of  the  latter  on  the  digestive 
organs  has  one  more  confirmation.  Third,  the 
peculiar  duty  of  offering  as  an  oblation  or  token 
of  eelf-denial  the  wines  which  from  their  intoxi- 
cating qualities  are  injurious  to  the  human  sys- 
tem, is  that  of  self-sacrifice  on  the  part  of  those 
addicted  to  their  use. 

While  the  ceremonial  law  is  thus  illustrated,  the 
principle  of  the  civil  law  restricting  the  use  of  in- 
toxicating wines  is  unfolded  and  brought  out  in 


The  Talmud  on  Wines,  1 83 

the  following  allusion  found  in  the  "  Sanhedrim  " 
(c.  viii.),  to  the  Mosaic  statute  as  to  the  rebel- 
lious son "  who  is  said  to  be  "  a  glutton  and  a 
drunkard"  (Deut.  xxi  18-21).  Attention  is 
called  by  the  writer  to  two  facts ;  first,  that  the 
noun  "  tirosh  "  has  its  root  in  the  primitive  verb 
"  rash,"  whence  the  three  nouns,  "  rash  "  (with 
alepJi),  "rish"  (with  yod),  and  "rosh"  (with 
or  without  vav),  are  derived  ;  and  second,  that 
while  the  noun  "  rash,"  means  "  head,"  or  leader, 
the  noun  "  rosh  "  without  vav  means  poor.  The 
Talmudist  adds  this  comment,  which,  however 
much  of  fancy  be  involved  in  the  rendering  of  the 
word,  indicates  Jhe  principle  taught  by  experience 
to  the  Hebrews  of  later  days  as  to  the  effect  of 
wine-drinking.  "  By  taking  a  little  "  even  of  this 
wine  of  the  lightest  and  of  unintoxicating  charac- 
ter, a  young  man  "  may  become  rash,  a  head  or 
leader  ";  while  "  in  ninety-nine  cases  out  of  a  hun- 
dred, youths  who  drink  wine  will  become  rosh" 
"  poor,"  or  good  for  nothing,  in  pocket,  intellect 
and  reliarious  worth.     The  careful  student  will 

o 

note  here,  that  "  tirosh  "  in  the  books  of  Moses, 
with  three  exceptions  only  (Num.  xviii.  1 2  ;  Deut. 
xxviii.  51  ;  xxxiii.  28),  is  written  without  vav  ; 
that  in  a  single  allusion  of  Jeremiah  (xxxi.  12), 
it  is  also  written  without  vav,-  while  in  all  the 
other  and  later  books  it  has  vav.  There  may 
have  been  a  reason  for  this,  known  to  Moses  as 


184         The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

well  as  to  the  later  Jewish  writers;  it  seems 
rather  to  have  been  but  an  earlier  and  a  later 
method  of  spelling;  but  the  comment  of  the 
Talmudic  writers  confirms,  to  say  the  least,  the 
etymology  of  "  tirosh  "  given  by  Fuerst. 

An  instructive  hint  is  found  in  three  con- 
nected comments  in  the  "  Hadrash  Rabbi "  (c. 
36),  on  Noah's  fall,  on  its  cause  and  on  its  re- 
sult (Gen.  ix.  20-25).  In  the  first  place,  the 
Talmudist  notes  that  the  verbal  connective 
and  prefix  "  vay,"  which  with  the  slight  guttural 
aleph  means  "  woe,"  and  which  without  the  gut- 
tural has  substantially  the  sound  of  natural 
wailing — this  prefix  occurs  fouj;teen,  or  twice 
seven  times  in  the  brief  record.  Again,  the 
utter  fall  of  Noah  is  indicated  by  the  use  of  the 
words  which  designate  the  highest  or  most  spe- 
cial, and  the  lowest  or  most  general  grade  of 
humanity,  in  the  opening  statement :  "And  Noah, 
the  'intellectual  or  the  noble'  man  (ish),  became 
the  '  low  or  earthy '  man  (adam)  " ;  the  word 
"  adam  "  being  rendered  in  our  English  version 
"  husbandman,"  equivalent  to  laboring  man.  Yet 
again,  the  Talmudist  pictures  Noah  as  a  second 
Adam,  directly  approached,  not,  as  was  Adam, 
through  his  wife,  but  by  the  tempter  himself 
of  Eden  ;  and  the  arch  foe  is  represented  as  sim- 
ply coming  and  watching  the  patriarch's  planting 
of  his  vineyard,  while  he  forecasts  the  result ;  and 


Talmud  on  Wine  at  the  Passover.      185 

thus  soliloquizes :  "  My  boy,  I  am  your  partner. 
Take  heed  you  do  not  trespass  too  much  on  my 
ground.  If  you  do,  I  shall  surely  hurt  you.  I 
need  not  trouble  myself  any  more  about  you." 
This  historical  citation,  and  the  comment  on  it, 
indicates  that  the  parallel  between  Adam's  fall 
and  that  of  Noah  has  been  logically,  not  fanci- 
fully, noted  by  intelligent  students  in  former  ages. 
The  fruit  of  the  "  forbidden  tree,"  by  whose  taste 
"  the  knowledge  of  both  good  and  evil "  came 
to  tempted  man,  is  seen  alike  in  the  Grecian  legend 
of  the  steps  by  w^hich  Bacchus  was  led  from  unin- 
toxicating  "  must "  to  intoxicating  "  wine";  and  it 
is  perpetuated  in  the  temptation  of  Noah,  the 
second  head  of  the  human  race.  The  tyranny,  as 
well  as  the  fascinating  seduction  of  "  custom  " 
and  "  fashion,"  have  perpetuated  Eden's  tempta- 
tion. 

In  the  Book  of  the  Talmud  on  the  "  Passover  " 
(de  Paschate,  c.  x,  sec.  7),  occurs  this  statement : 
"  Between  the  first  and  second  cups,  if  he  wish, 
let  him  drink  ;  but  between  the  third  and  fourth 
let  him  not  drink."  This  historic  Hebrew  men- 
tion of  wine-drinking  at  the  Passover  is  subse- 
quent to  the  mention  made  in  the  histories  of 
Jesus  in  the  New  Testament ;  and  it  is  strikingly 
in  accord  with  those  New  Testament  allusions. 
The  word  wine  is  not  used ;  but  the  general 
term  "  cup  "  is  employed  as  in  the  New  Testa- 


1 86  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

ment  mention  as  to  Christ's  last  Passover.  The 
only  Old  Testament  mention  of  the  beverage 
at  feasts  is,  as  we  have  seen,  that  of  Nehemiah 
(viii.  \o)  ;  where  it  is  the  sweet  juice  of  the  grape, 
which  the  people  are  directed  to  drink.  We 
have  seen  the  unmistakable  mention  by  Christ 
that  the  contents  of  the  cup  was  the  fresh  "  fruit 
of  the  vine,"  both  at  the  Passover  and  at  his  ap- 
pointed supper.  With  this  fact  in  view,  this 
connected  train  of  facts  should  be  noted. 

In  the  twelfth  century,  in  Spain,  Maimonides, 
and  with  him  Bartenora,  eminent  Rabbis  of 
their  day,  make  this  almost  coincident  state- 
ment :  "  Wine  which  is  drunk  while  eating  will 
not  inebriate ;  but  after  eating  it  only  inebriates." 
This  seeming  interpretation  of  the  writers  whose 
statement  was  made  one  thousand  years  before, 
js  proved  to  be  gratuitous  and  suggested  by  the 
perverted  custom  of  the  degenerate  Middle 
Ages,  by  these  facts.  This  same  Maimonides  in 
his  "  Yad  Hachazakah,"  or  "  Handbook  of 
Help,"  presents  the  following  views  in  his  "  Pre- 
cepts as  to  Temper"  (c.  HI.  sec.  1-9):  "The 
Nazarite  was  an  extremist  in  asceticism.  But  all 
men  should  be  abstemious ;  and  men  of  delicate 
constitution  or  of  ardent  temperament  should 
abstain  entirely  from  luxuries  as  well  as  from 
wine."  The  duty  is  thus  stated :  "  He  that  is  of 
a  sanguine  ('  ham '  01  hot)  temperament  ought 


Rabbi  Maimonides  on  Wines,  187 

neither  to  eat  meat  nor  to  drink  wine;  yea, 
more,  as  Solomon  said  (Pro v.  xxv.  27),  '  To  eat 
much  syrup  (debsh)  is  not  good ' ;  but  he  ought 
rather  to  drink  water  with  bitter  herbs"  ('olshim). 
Maimonides  adds :  '  His  object  in  all  this  is  to 
obtain  that  which  is  necessary  for  him,  to  the 
end  that  his  mind  may  be  perfect  to  serve  the 
Lord  ; "  as  proof  of  which  Maimonides  cites  the 
following :  "  Solomon  has  said  in  his  wisdom, 
'In  all  thy  ways  acknowledge  Him'  (Prov.  iii. 
6)."  It  is  impossible  to  suppose,  then,  that 
Maimonides  could  have  taught  that  at  the  sol- 
emn feast  of  the  Passover  men  would  honor  the 
Lord  by  drinking  intoxicating  wine  to  excess, 
when  at  any  other  time  they  would  dishonor  the 
Lord  if  they  did  not  abstain  entirely  from  in- 
toxicating wine.  It  is  manifest  that  the  princi- 
ple of  Maimonides  is  akin  to  the  Greek  and 
Christian  idea  found  in  Paul's  Epistle  to  the 
Corinthians  ;  a  principle  which  Spanish,  i.  e.,  Old 
Gothic,  custom  at  that  age  had  perverted. 

The  more  important  fact  to  observe  is  this : 
that  though  in  different  ages  and  localities  in- 
toxicating wine  may  have  been  used  at  the 
Passover,  the  prevailing,  if  not  the  universal 
conviction  of  the  Jews  has  been  that  if  intoxi- 
cating wine  be  used  it  should  be  greatly  diluted  ; 
but  that  in  all  cases  where  it  is  possible,  a  wine 


i88  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

made  of  the  fresh  juice  of  the  grape,  unfer- 
mented,  or  of  raisins  or  dried  grapes,  should  be 
employed.  The  case  cited  by  Rev.  E.  Smith 
(Bib.  Sac.  Nov.  1846),  is,  according  to  his  own 
statement,  an  isolated  one.  Jahn,  the  eminent 
Hebrew  archaeologist,  familiar  with  the  numerous 
communities  of  Jews  who  flocked  from  Catholic 
Europe  as  well  as  from  Asia  into  Germany  for 
protection  after  the  Reformation,  gives  the  fol- 
lowing testimony.  Quoting  from  the  custom  of 
his  day  and  from  the  "  Sepher  al  Pesah."  Hav- 
ing described  (Arch.  P.  HI.,  c.  iii.  sec.  354)  the 
drinking  of  the  third  "  cup  of  benediction,"  after 
which  Psalms  cxv.  to  cxviii.  are  chanted,  and 
then  the  fourth  cup,  after  which  Psalms  cxx.  to 
cxxxvii.  are  sung,  this  careful  writer  adds  :  "  The 
wine  is  mingled  with  water."  In  visits  to  the 
synagogues  of  Cairo,  Jerusalem,  and  other  Orient- 
al cities,  in  inquiries  at  Washington,  D.  C,  from 
eminent  Rabbis  resident  in  the  East  as  far  as 
Bagdad,  and  in  familiar  acquaintance  with  Rabbis 
and  merchants  who  are  Israelites  in  New  York, 
the  writer  has  found  one  universal  testimony ; 
that  conformity  to  the  law  requires  abstinence,  if 
possible,  from  fermented  wines  at  the  Passover. 
In  the  metropolitan  city  of  the  New  World 
where  representatives  of  every  Hebrew  com- 
munity and  sect  are  met,  the  Passover  wine  is 


The  Poet  Lucian  on  Wines.  189 

prepared  from  crushed  raisins  or  dried  grapes, 
steeped  in  water,  pressed  and  made  into  a  sweet 
but  unfermented  wine. 

WINE    IN    THE    LATER   GRECIAN    AND    ROMAN 
LITERATURE. 

The  Romans,  even  under  their  declining  em- 
pire, retained  their  pride  as  to  laws  and  religion; 
as  to  customs  and  fashions ;  the  majority  of  the 
patricians  declining  to  accept  of  Christianity 
under  Constantine  a.d.  306,  and  maintaining 
their  distinctive  character  as  a  people  down  to 
the  Gothic  conquest,  a.d.  476.  The  Greeks  like- 
wise lost  little  of  their  ancestral  spirit  after 
Macedonian  Byzantium  became  Constantinople, 
the  city  of  Constantine.  The  slumbering  Greek 
fire  continues  to  flash  along  the  whole  chain  of 
Byzantine  or  later  Greek  literature  down  to  the 
fall  of  Constantinople  into  the  hands  of  the 
Turks  A.D.  1453. 

Lucian,  of  the  second  century,  has  been  quoted 
m  the  line  of  authorities  in  modern  discussions 
as  to  intoxicating  wines.  A  Greek  lawyer,  of 
Antioch,  in  Syria,  philosophic  in  thought,  poetic 
in  sentiment,  genial  and  often  humorous  in  tem- 
perament, professing  to  respect  the  religious 
convictions  of  his  ancestors  and  also  the  newly 
introduced  Christian  faith,  his  allusions  to  wine 
in  his  famed  dialogues  are  both  interesting  and 


190  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines, 

valuable.  In  his  "  Nigrinus,"  or  habits  of 
philosophers,  he  represents  one  of  his  speakers 
as  saying  that  he  is  "excited  by  philosophy 
somewhat  as  the  impulsive  Indians,"  who  "  rave 
excessively  on  undiluted  wine  "  (akratou).  In 
his  "Juno  and  Jupiter,"  he  represents  the  queen 
of  gods  commenting  severely  on  one  who  "  leads 
the  dance  "  and  is  "  intoxicated,"  as  bringing  "  re- 
proach on  sacred  things  ;"  and,  referring  to  what 
Jupiter  had  said  in  praise  of  Bacchus,  she  says: 
"  You  seem  to  me  to  extol  his  discovery  of  the 
vine  and  of  wine."  To  this  Jupiter  responds 
in  explanation :  "  Nothing  of  this  which  you 
affirm  ;  for  it  is  not  wine  nor  Bacchus  that  oc- 
casions these  things,  but  unlimited  drinking  of 
undiluted  wine."  In  his  "  Mercury  and  Lucina," 
or  the  god  of  eloquence  and  the  guardian  of 
midwifeiy,  Mercury  says, that  if  Lucina  is  troubled 
by  his  excessive  drinking  she  should  have  "  poured 
water "  into  the  wine-jar.  In  his  "  Saturnalia  " 
a  priest  is  warned  by  the  god,  that  if  any  one  is 
"gorged  with  sweet-scented  wine  (methuskesthai 
anthosmiou),  "this  law  has  been  enacted"  for 
him;  that  "his  belly  be  distended  till  rent  with 
unfermented  wine"  (glukous).  In  his  enco- 
mium on  Demosthenes,  Lucian  says,  that,  unlike 
iEschylus,  of  whom  Callisthenes  said  that  "  he 
wrote  his  tragedies  under  the  stimulus  of  wine," 
"  this  Demosthenes  elaborated   (sunepithei)  his 


The  Compiler,  Atkencsus,  on  Wines.    191 

reasonings  (logons),  drinking  water"  (hydor 
pinon).  No  thoughtful  reader  can  fail  to  see 
that  Lucian  sustains  the  wisdom  of  the  old 
Greek  physicians,  moralists,  orators  and  philoso- 
phers, who  thought  nature's  stimulus  in  mental 
action  the  only  one  needed,  who  warned  against 
intoxicating  stimulants  in  critical  disease,  who 
saw  the  inconsistency  of  their  use  in  religious 
devotion,  and  who  sought  the  antidote  in  diluted 
wine,  in  unfermented  wine,  or  in  water  drinking. 

The  principal  writer  of  this  age  to  claim  atten- 
tion, is  Athenseus  of  the  third  century ;  a  com- 
piler of  varied  knowledge,  regarded  by  enthusias- 
tic admirers,  such  as  his  French  translator,  a  sec- 
ond Pliny.  Unlike  Pliny,  he  merely  brino-s 
together  without  scientific  order  scattered  state- 
ments of  numerous  Grecian  and  Roman  writers 
as  to  various  subjects  discussed ;  while  Pliny  is 
an  independent  thinker,  analyzing  for  his  readers 
the  facts  and  literary  treasures  which  he  has 
collected.  Hence  it  is,  doubtless,  that  many 
modern  writers  have  largely  quoted  Athenseus 
as  they  have  Plato  and  Pliny,  without  giving 
any  connected  view  of  his  real  sentiment. 

In  his  "  Deipnosophistai,"  or  Banquet  of  the 
Sages,  some  twenty  lawyers,  physicians,  poets, 
rhetoricians,  artists  and  critics  are  represented  as 
meeting  in  the  mansion  of  a  rich  Roman  named 
Laurentius ;  at  which,  among  every  conceivable 


192  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

subject  commented  upon,  that  of  wine-drinking 
finds,  as  in  all  ages  among  thinking  men,  a 
prominent  place  among  practical  yet  debatable 
issues. 

In  his  opening  citation  (B.  I.  c.  24),  Theo- 
phrastus  is  quoted  as  mentioning  a  wine  of 
Achaia  which  caused  "  miscarriage  "  in  females ; 
and  another,  which  if  drank  bj  women,  "  they 
have  no  children."  In  Thasos,  one  kind  causes 
sleep,  and  another  the  opposite  effect.  Dion 
(B.  I.  c.  25),  an  academic  philosopher,  re- 
proaches the  Egyptians  for  being  fond  of  wine, 
and  says :  "  They  make  a  liquor  of  barley,"  under 
the  influence  of  which  "  they  sing,  dance,  and 
act  like  those  overcome  with  wine."  Aristotle 
is  said  to  have  remarked  that  "  those  drunk  with 
wine  fall*  on  their  faces,  while  those  overcome 
with  barley-liquor  fall  on  the  back  of  their  head  "j 
and  he  gives  as  the  reason,  that  "  wine  causes 
frenzy,  and  barley-liquor  is  stupefying  (karoti- 
kos)."  To  prevent  drunkenness,  the  Egyptians 
drink  a  decoction  "of  cabbage"  (krambas)- 
Plato  (B.  II.  c.  i),  in  Cratylus,  to  indicate  his 
double  idea,  suggests  that  the  derivation  of 
oinos,  wine,  is  from  oiesis,  conceit,  or  from  oinesis, 
utility.  In  the  table  discussion  (B.  II.  c.  2,  3), 
Mnesitheus,  a  physician,  says:  "The  gods  made 
men  acquainted  with  wine  as  a  very  great  good 
for  those  who  use  it  with  reason,  but  as  very  in* 


The  Compiler,  AtheneBus,  on  Wines.    193 

jurious  to  those  who  use  it  with  indiscretion." 
Hence  they  directed  that  "  Bacchus  be  invoked 
as  a  physician  {ialron'),  and  as  a  healer  {Jiygia- 
teit)!'  He  adds,  that  wine  brings  "  cheer  when 
mixed  with  fitting  quantities  of  water " ;  that 
"one-third  wine"  makes  the  drinker"  impudent," 
that "  one-half" " produces  madness,"  and  that"  all 
wine  ....  destroys  mind  and  body."  Eubulus 
represents  Bacchus  as  saying,  that  at  feasts,  when 
"three"  glasses  of  wine  are  mixed  with  "nine" 
glasses  of  water,  making  twelve  in  all,  the  effects 
of  these  glasses,  if  drunk  successively,  will  be  as 
follows :  The  first  gives  "  health  " ;  the  second 
stimulates  "  sensual  desire  "  (eros) ;  the  third  in- 
duces "  sleep  "  ;  and  at  these  three  "  wise  men  " 
will  retire  from  the  banquet  and  "  return  home 
in  peace."  If  they  drink  on,  the  fourth  awakens 
"  insolence  " ;  the  fifth,  "  uproar  "  ;  the  sixth, 
"  quarrel "  ;  the  seventh,  "  blows  "  ;  the  eighth, 
"  reckless  injuries  "  ;  the  ninth,  "  bitter  hatred  " ; 
the  tenth,  "  madness,  slaughter  and  death."  Pan- 
yasis,  in  yet  stronger  coloring,  paints  substantially 
the  same  successive  pictures  of  the  wine-drink- 
er's progress.  Over  "the  first  glass  the  three 
graces  preside."  On  the  second,  which  "  exhila- 
rates the  heart,  Bacchus  and  Venus  smile,"  and 
they  bid  the  drinker  "  return  home  in  peace." 
But,  adds  the  delineator,  if  their  voice  be  not 
heeded,  "  who  can  tell  what  excess,  waste,  wrongs, 
0 


194  T^^  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

insults,  conflicts  will  follow  ! "  Hence  the  ad- 
vice :  "  Be  content,  my  friend,  with  the  two 
glasses,  and  return  to  your  home  and  tender 
wife  "  ;  and  he  adds,  "  Then,  too,  your  associates 
led  by  your  example,  will  go  to  their  beds  with 
unaching  heads." 

A  fit  closing  reference  of  Athenaeus  as  to  the 
law  of  wine-drinking,  is  his  allusion  to  the 
Greek  idea  of  its  religious  aspect  (B.  XV.  c.  48). 
"  Among  the  Greeks,  those  who  sacrifice  to  the 
sun,  make  their  libations  of  honey,  as  they 
never  bring  wine  to  the  altars  of  the  gods  ;  they 
affirming,  that  it  is  fitting  that  the  god  who 
keeps  the  whole  universe  in  order,  regulating 
everything,  and  always  going  round  and  super- 
intending the  whole,  should  in  no  manner  be 
connected  with  drunkenness." 

This  striking  statement  as  to  the  first' day  of 
the  week,  and  the  unfitness  that  intoxicating 
wine  should  mar  its  solemnities,  calls  attention 
to  the  association  at  this  era  of  old  Roman  and 
of  early  Christian  sentiment  "and  practice.  At 
the  very  time  when  the  scene  of  this  "  Banquet 
of  the  Sages  "  is  laid  by  Athenaeus,  the  immemo- 
rial custom  of  the  ancients,  who  divided  days  into 
weeks,  devoting  the  first  to  worship  of  the  sun, 
the  second  of  the  moon,  and  the  remaining  five 
to  the  then  known  planets — the  immemorial 
custom  of  making  "  Sunday  "  the  first  and  chief 


Dio  Cassius  on  Sunday  Festivities.     195 

of  the  week  was  revived  ;  and,  as  many  suppose, 
to  offset  Christian  influence.  In  his  history 
(xxxvii.  81),  Dio  Cassius,  the  Roman  historian 
and  senator,  states,  that  this  division  was  derived 
from  the  ancient  Egyptians,  and  that  a  Httle  be- 
fore his  time  it  was  re-introduced  by  the  emperors. 
He  declares  that  this  restoration  of  Sunday 
as  the  day  of  special  devotion,  was  but  a  com- 
pletion of  the  work  begun  by  Claudius,  the 
fourth  emperor ;  who,  perceiving  how  the  work- 
days of  the  people  were  broken  in  upon  by  the 
observance  of  festivals  in  honor  of  generals, 
among  which  class  of  men  emperors  were  su- 
preme, and  that  wine-drinking  and  debauchery 
were  thus  fostered,  issued  an  Imperial  edict  re- 
stricting the  numbers  of  such  festivals  (Ix.  17). 
From  this  time  the  days  of  the  week  were 
styled  "  Dies  Solis,  Lunae,  Martis,  Mercurii, 
Jovis,  Veneris,  Saturni,"  names  still  preserved  in 
the  modern  languages  of  Europe  ;  being  derived 
directly  from  the  Latin  in  the  Spanish,  the 
Italian,  and  the  French,  and  translated  into  the 
kindred  Saxon  names  in  the  German  and  the 
English  tongues.  Since  it  was  one  of  the  con- 
vincing appeals  of  the  Christian  apologists  of 
this  age,  that  by  inheritance,  through  the  Old 
Testament  Scriptures,  the  believers  in  Christ 
then  observed  the  very  day  on  which  the  sun's 
light  first  broke  in  its  full  radiance  on  the  earth, 


196  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

would  it  not  be  strange,  if  Christians,  keeping 
that  day  from  a  higher  and  purer  sentiment  than 
Greeks  ever  knew,  as  the  day  when  the  Spiritual 
"Sun  of  Righteousness"  arose  from  the  tomb, 
*'  with  healing  "  as  well  as  "  light "  in  His  beams — 
would  it  not  be  passing  strange  if  followers  of 
the  spotless  Jesus  were  behind  their  Greek  an- 
cestry and  contemporaries  in  the  light  they  de- 
rived from  the  New  Testament,  on  the  law  of 
wine  -  drinking  ?  We  may  well  turn  to  the 
records  they  have  left,  that  we  may  learn  their 
sentiments,  directly  drawn  from  the  teachings  of 
Christ  and  His  apostles. 

WINE    IN    THE    EARLY   CHRISTIAN   WRITERS    BE- 
FORE constantine's  reign. 

In  the  age  between  the  last  of  Christ's  apos- 
tles and  that  of  Constantine,  the  first  Roman  em- 
peror who  became  a  Christian,  a  period  extend- 
ing from  about  a.d.  102  to  306,  there  was  an  in- 
fluence coming  from  both  philosophic  accepters 
and  rejecters  of  the  Christian  faith,  controlling 
Christian  leaders  in  their  views  as  to  social  cus- 
toms of  doubtful  moral  propriety.  Truly  spirit- 
ual Christians  read  and  followed  the  inspired 
apostles  as  their  guides  in  morals  except  so  far 
as  the  influence  of  education  and  of  association 
misled  them  in  their  interpretation  of  the  exam- 
ple of  Christ,  and  of  the  statements  of  His  apos- 


The  Syriac  Terms  for  "Tirosk."       197 

ties.  On  the  propriety  of  wine-drinking,  how- 
ever, the  secular  sentiment,  as  we  have  seen  in 
the  Hebrew,  Grecian  and  Roman  writers  just 
quoted,  was  specially  enlightened. 

As  a  link  indicating  the  connection  between 
Hebrew  and  Greek,  Roman  and  Asiatic  convic- 
tion in  this  age,  the  Syriac  translation  of  the  Old 
and  New  Testaments  is  an  important  testimony 
as  to  the  "  fruit  of  the  vine." 

The  Syriac  term  for  the  Hebrew  "yayin"  is 
*'  chamro,"  corresponding  to  the  Hebrew  "  che- 
mar,"  the  Chaldaic  "  chamra,"  and  the  modern 
Arabic  "chamer."  The  Hebrew  "tirosh"  is 
also  usually  rendered  "  chamro  "  in  the  Syriac  ; 
"chamro,"  like  the  Greek  "  oinos,"  and  the 
Latin  "  vinum,"  being  the  generic  term.  The 
real  nature  of  "  tirosh  "  as  unfermented  wine  ap- 
pears in  the  special  terms  employed  when  its 
specific  character  must  be  indicated.  In  Judges 
ix.  13  and  2  Kings  xviii.  32,  it  is  rendered 
"odsho,"  fruit;  in  Isa.  xxiv.  7,  "eburo,"  grain 
or  berry ;  in  Isa.  Ixv  8,  "  tutitho,"  grape  or 
cluster;  and  in  Hosea  iv.  11,  its  nature  is  illus- 
trated by  the  term  "ravyetha."  Again,  the 
Hebrew  "  'asis  "  is  rendered,  Song  of  Sol.  viii.  2, 
by  "  chalyutho,"  must  or  unfermented  grape 
juice ;  in  Isa.  xlix.  26,  by  "  meritho,"  juice  of 
unpressed  grapes,  the  Syriac  term  cited  by  Fu- 
erst  as. of  the  same  root  with  "tirosh."     In  the 


198  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

Syriac  New  Testament  the  rendering  of  the 
phrase  "fruit  of  the  vine"  (Luke  xxii.  18)  is 
"ildo  da  gephetho,"  offspring  of  the  vine;  and 
that  of  "gleukos"  (Acts  ii.  13)  is  "meritho," 
juice  of  unpressed  grapes.  The  meaning  oi 
the  Syriac  verb  "rawoyutho,"  whose  noun  is 
used  in  Hoseaiv.  11,  is  "  madefactus,  inebriatus, 
satiatus  est,"  he  is  drenched,  inebriated,  glut- 
ted. This  confirms  the  view  taken  of  the  same 
term  in  the  Hebrew  and  the  Aramaic  of  the  Tar- 
gums  ;  the  idea  of  "inebriation  "  being  second- 
ary, and  but  an  inference  from  the  seen  fact  that 
the  drinker  is  gorged  and  over-filled  with  drink. 
This  also  illustrates  the  use  of  the  word  "  tham- 
riq,"  used  by  Jonathan,  in  his  Targum,  Prov. 
iii.  II,  for  the  English  "be  weary";  evidently 
designed  by  him  to  explain  the  natural  effect  of 
"  tirosh  "  ;  as  has  been  observed  in  citing  the 
Targum  on  Prov.  iii.  10.  For  these  Syriac 
renderings  the  writer  is  indebted  to  Prof.  C. 
H.  Toy,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  the  eminent  Semitic 
scholar. 

Two  important  facts  are  here  to  be  noted : 
First,  the  same  view  of  the  nature  of  the 
Hebrew  "tirosh,"  and  of  the  mode  of  its  prep- 
aration, is  found  among  the  Syriac  interpreters 
which  has  been  traced  in  the  Greek  and  Latin 
translations.  Second,  the  terms  illustrating  the 
nature  of  products  of  the  grape  as  indicated  to 


Clefneni  of  Alexandria  on  Wines.      199 

the  eye  are  common  to  the  Semitic  and  Aryan 
languages  ;  "  chemer  "  in  the  Semitic,  and  "  fer- 
vere  "  in  the  Latin,  referring  to  the  effervescence 
seen  in  ferment ;  and  "  ravyetha  "  in  the  Sem- 
itic, and  "  methuo "  in  the  Greek,  referring  to 
the  excess  in  the  drinker. 

Clement  of  Alexandria  is  the  first  to  claim  es- 
pecial notice  in  this  age.  He  presided,  from  a.d. 
191  to  202,  over  the  earliest  Christian  school  es- 
tablished at  Alexandria,  the  seat  of  Greek  learn- 
ing, made  illustrious  from  the  days  of  the  second 
Ptolemy,  whose  library  had  invited  the  Greek 
translation  of  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  nearly  five 
centuries  before  Clement  lived.  Trained  in  a 
complete  knowledge  of  Egyptian  science  pre- 
served in  hieroglyphics,  thoroughly  versed  in  the 
whole  range  of  Grecian  wisdom,  and  learned  in 
the  Old  and  New  Testament  Scriptures,  Clement 
has  enriched  all  subsequent  ages  by  his  works. 
Their  value  was  realized  when  the  Greek  monks, 
who  in  1828  entertained  Champollion,  showed 
him  on  a  single  page  of  Clement  the  cor- 
rectness of  his  system  of  hieroglyphic  interpre- 
tation; by  the  earlier  reading  of  which  single 
page  he  might  have  been  saved  years  of  ex- 
haustive study.  In  his  treatise  on  "  Education  " 
(Paed.  L.  H.  c.  i.,  ii.),  Clement  dwells  at  length 
on  the  natural  and  revealed  law  as  to  wines  ;  and 
>^urgei  abstinence  on  youth.     He  gives  a  list  of 


200 


The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines, 


wines  of  different  kinds;  mentioning  among 
them  a  sweet  (edus)  Syrian  wine.  He  describes 
the  effects  of  these  different  wines  on  .the  brain, 
heart  and  liver ;  he  says  men  do  not  seek  wine 
when  really  thirsty,  but  pure  water ;  and  he  de- 
clares :  "  I  admire  those  who  require  no  other 
beverage  than  water,  avoiding  wine  as  they  do 
fire.  From  its  use  arise  excessive  desires  and 
licentious  conduct.  The  circulation  is  accele- 
rated, and  the  body  inflames  the  soul." 

He  cites  the  fact  that  men  who  need  unim- 
paired energies,  as  kings,  must  be  abstemious. 
Following  up  these  teachings  of  reason  by  Script- 
ure references,  he  glances  over  the  entire  Old 
Testament,  Apocryphal  and  New  Testament 
testimonies.  He  quotes  Pro  v.  xx.  i,  as  showing 
that  wine  is  not  a  fit  companion  (akolouthos). 
He  cites  the  wisdom  of  Seirach  (Eccles.  xxxi. 
22-31),  as  the  summary  of  worldly  wisdom  as  to 
wine-drinking.  Coming  to  the  New  Testament, 
he  challenges  those  who  perverted  the  New 
Testament  statements  as  to  Christ.  Hinting 
what  was  the  wine  He  blest,  and  then  citing 
the  special  statement  of  Luke  as  to  the  Pass- 
over wine,  and  the  words  of  Matthew  and  Mark 
as  to  the  wine  of  the  Lord's  Supper,  he  makes 
their  meaning  more  specific  for  his  Greek  read- 
ers. In  the  words  of  Mark  and  Luke,  "  of  the 
fruit  of  the  vine,"  (tou  gennematos  tes  ampelou) 


Clement  on  Bible  Wines.  201 

and  i  1  those  of  Matthew's  fuller  statement,  "  of 
this  fruit  of  the  vine  "  (toutou  tou  gennematou 
tes  ampelou),  Clement  regards  Christ  as  point- 
ing to  Himself,  as  He  did  in  His  declaration,  "  I 
am  the  vine  ; "  and  in  order  to  bring  out  Christ's 
emphatic  thought,  he  quotes  as  if  they  were 
Christ's,  this  fuller  statement,  "of  the  fruit  of 
the  vine,  even  this  "  (tou  gennematos  tes  ampe- 
lou, tes  tautes).  To  add  yet  greater  force,  he 
asks:  ''How  drank  He?"  thus  indicating  the 
wine  drunk  by  the  Lord  when  they  said,  "  behold 
a  gluttonous  man  and  a  wine-drinker."  His  re- 
ply implies  that  it  must  haVe  been  the  same  "  fruit 
of  the  vine  "  used  at  the  supper.  Coming  to  the 
case  of  the  Corinthians  who  preceded  the  Lord's 
Supper  by  a  common  feast,  as  the  supper  insti- 
tuted by  Christ  was  preceded  by  the  Passover, 
Clement  contradicts  the  suggestion  that  intoxi- 
cating wine  was  there  used.  He  indicates  that 
it  is  the  food,  rather  than  the  drink  of  the  feast, 
to  which  Paul  refers,  and  that  he  reproves 
them  for  "  clutching  at  the  delicacies,"  for  "  eat- 
ing beyond  the  demands  of  nourishment."  He 
farther  intimates  that  servants  brought  into  the 
Christian  Church,  and  to  the  table  set  for  Chris- 
tian masters,  unaccustomed  to  a  common  and 
well-furnished  table,  would  naturally  be  ignorant 
of  the  laws  of  propriety.  That  Paul  refers  to 
the  food  rather  than  int(>xicating  wine,  he  thinks 
9* 


202  The  Dizine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

manifest  for  these  several  reasons :  that  women 
are  present,  to  whom,  according  to  Greek  sen- 
timent, wine  was  prohibited ;  that  unseemly  ea- 
gerness "  in  eating  "  is  the  fault  reproved  ;  and  that 
the  contrast  made  is  between  those  "  hungry " 
and  those  "  surfeited."  The  main  point,  there- 
fore, of  the  apostle,  he  thinks,  was  to  rebuke  the 
more  wealthy  contributors  to  the  feast  for  tempt- 
ing their  weaker  brethren  to  gluttony.  While 
these  comments  of  Clement,  living  only  a  cen- 
tury after  John  had  closed  his  teachings,  are,  in 
many  respects,  interesting  and  instructive,  they 
are  especially  confirmatory  of  the  fact  that  intox- 
icating wine  was  not  used  by  Christ,  or  intro- 
duced at  the  Lord's  Supper  in  the  early  Church. 
Origen,  at  the  head  of  the  same  Alexandrian 
school  in  the  next  generation,  a.d.  228  to  254,  is 
equally  explicit  He  asserts  that  Noah  did  not, 
and  could  not,  beforehand,  know  the  intoxicating 
influence  of  wine,  as  is  proved  by  the  word  "  he 
began  (erxato)  to  be  a  husbandman."  He  dwells 
on  the  fact  that,  as  in  the  case  of  the  forbidden 
tree,  only  experieiice  reveals  the  fact  that  "  wine 
takes  away  the  mind."  Referring  to  Rom.  xii. 
16-18,  he  says  that  the  Encratites,  who  abstained 
from  wine,  were  accustomed  to  cite  the  fact  that 
the  word  wine  does  not  occur  in  all  Paul's  in- 
structions to  the  Cormthians,  and  that  it  is  only 
incidentally  mentioned  in  his  later  epistles. 


Origen  and  Irencsus  on  Wines.         203 

This  allusion  of  Origen  to  the  Encratites,  or 
"  abstinents,"  calls  attention  to  the  fact  that  in 
the  earliest  Christian  ages,  two  tendencies  were 
developed — one,  extreme  ;  the  other,  legitimate — 
in  avoiding  the  use  of  intoxicating  wine  at  the  or- 
dinance of  the  Lord's  Supper.  The  statements  of 
Clement  show  that  in  Egypt — -the  lower  portion 
of  which,  as  we  have  seen,  is  not  a  wine-growing 
country — it  was  known  that  neither  Christ  nor 
the  apostles  used  intoxicating  wine,  especially  at 
the  Lord's  Supper,  and  that  because  Palestine 
was  a  country  furnishing  the  "  fruit  of  the  vine." 
Hence  two  resorts,  prompted  by  Christian  con- 
viction, grew  up  in  Egypt. 

Irenaeus,  bishop  of  Lyons,  in  France,  from  a.d. 
177  to  202,  in  a  country  unlike  Egypt  in  wine- 
culture,  opposing  many  corrupt  practices  of  his 
time,  speaks  of  the  cup  of  the  Lord's  Supper  as  a 
"  mingled  cup  "  (kekrammenon  poterion,  Haer. 
L.  V.  c.  2).  This  phrase  is  explained  by  writers 
of  the  following  ages.  In  the  spread  of  Chris- 
tianity, just  after  the  apostles'  day,  to  Spain,  north- 
ern Italy,  and  France,  the  first  of  which  countries 
Paul  meant  to  visit  (Rom.  xv.  24),  water  was 
mingled  with  the  wine ;  and  that  because  wines 
made  of  the  grapes  of  the  north  had  more  acid- 
ity than  those  of  southern  regions,  and  were  pre- 
pared with  less  care  to  prevent  alcoholic  fermen- 
tation ;  a  custjm  which  was  but  a  continuance 


204  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wine^, 

of  the  old  Greek  sentiment  already  referred  to, 
and  which  rules  in  the  Oriental  Church  to  this 
day. 

Justin  Martyr,  the  master-scholar  who  met  the 
objections  to  Christian  truth  urged  by  learned 
Jews,  and  by  philosophic  Greeks,  in  his  day, 
martyred  at  Rome  a.d.  165,  alludes  (Apol.  II.  p. 
97)  to  ascetic  Christian  believers  who,  like  the 
early  Hebrews  and  Egyptian  Nazarenes  and  like 
the  Jewish  Nazarenes  of  their  day,  abstained  from 
both  flesh  and  wine ;  successors  to  those  alluded 
to  by  the  apostle  Paul,  Rom.  xiv.  1-3,  These, 
as  Eusebius  (Hist.  Eccl.  vi.  38),  quoting  from  a 
work  of  Origen  now  lost,  states,  were  so  strict  in 
abstaining  from  any  product  of  the  grape,  that 
they  had  come  to  use  water  instead  of  wine  at 
the  Lord's  Supper.  This  extreme  sentiment 
growing  out  of  a  deep  and  legitimate,  though 
misguided  conviction,  beginning  at  this  early 
day,  could  not  be  obliterated  from  the  Christian 
conscience  in  succeeding  ages.  It  found  expres- 
sion in  the  writings  often  attributed  to  Justin, 
but  now  called  "  Pseudo- Justin,"  because  ac- 
knowledged to  have  been  by  another  hand, 
which,  however,  because  kindred  in  view  to  his, 
are  still  bound  up  with  the  works  of  Justin. 
This  writer,  reflecting  the  sentiment  of  the 
second  century,  says  (Epist.  ad  Zen.  et  Seren. 
sect  12):    "Wine  is  not  to  be  drunk  daily  as 


Wines  Under  Constantine,  205 

water.  ....  Water  is  necessary  ;  but  wine  only 
as  a  medicine."  He  shows  the  absurdity  of 
the  plea  that  wine  heats  the  body  in  winter  and 
cools  it  in  summer ;  and  says :  "  It  is  admitted 
that  wine  is  a  deadly  poison  "  (pharmakon  than- 
asimon).  In  using  it,  he  adds,  "  We  abuse  the 
work  of  God." 

The  wide-spread  prevalence  of  this  conscien- 
tious abstinence  from  wine  in  religious  services 
is  indicated  in  the  allusion  of  Cyprian  (Epist.  63, 
ad  Csecilium,  bishop  of  Carthage,  in  Africa, 
A.D.  24-8,  martyred  a.d.  258),  who  mentions  some 
Christians  who  used  water  in  the  morning  and 
wine  only  at  night.  He  argues  in  the  spirit  of 
his  day :  "  The  wine  and  water  can  not  be  re- 
ceived alone  ;  for  w^ine  alone,  represents  Christ 
without  the  people,  and  water  the  people  alone 
without  Christ."  These  extreme  views  are  legiti- 
mate links  in  a  chain  of  common  human  convic- 
tion. The  matching  leaves  of  a  volume  thus 
complete  in  all  its  parts,  must  have  had  a  com- 
mon source. 

WINES  AT  THE  ERA  OF  CONSTANTINE,  THE  FIRST 
CHRISTIAN  EMPEROR. 

Success  in  military  conquest  had,  under  other 
religions,  introduced  luxury  and  moral  degener- 
acy. It  was  to  be  seen  whether,  when  Constan- 
tine, ruling  as  the  first  Christian  emperor,  from 


2o6  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

A.D.  306  to  337,  came  to  power,  the  monarch 
leading  Christian  customs  would,  like  Cyrus, 
Alexander,  and  Augustus,  fall  from  his  youthful 
promise,  and  thus  the  use  of  intoxicating  bever- 
ages pervade  the  Christian  world. 

Eusebius,  the  great  historian  of  the  early 
Church,  an  intimate  friend  and  adviser  of  Con- 
stantine,  a  native  of  Palestine,  in  his  treatise  on 
the  preparation  of  the  world  for  the  Gospel  (De 
Prep.  Evang.),  cites  this  fact:  that  the  convic- 
tion as  to  intoxicating  wine  held  by  Grecian 
and  Roman  moralists,  specially  prepared  them  to 
accept  the  Old  and  New  Testament  principle  as 
to  abstinence  from  its  use.  He  quotes  the  views 
of  Plato  in  his  Republic,  the  statutes  of  Car- 
thage, of  Crete,  and  of  Lacedaemon,  bringing 
out  especially  the  facts  that  both  custom  and  ex- 
press law  forbade  women  and  servants,  also  sol- 
diers while  ivi  the  army,  and  magistrates  during 
their  term  of  office,  to  use  intoxicating  wine  ; 
citing  also  the  reasons  urged  by  observing  men 
in  all  ages  for  this  abstinence.  Tracing,  then,  the 
Old  Testament  principle,  he  finds  the  same  prin- 
ciple in  the  special  vow  of  the  Nazarites,  ap- 
proved by  Moses  as  already  existing  (Num 
vi.  3),  while  he  made  this  voluntary  pledge  of  the 
Nazarite  a  positive  requirement  imposed  on  all 
the  Levites  because  of  the  sacredness  of  their  of- 
fice (Lev.  X.  3).    He  finds  \hG point  of  the  New 


Roman  Vii'tue  under  Consianlzne,      207 

Testament  teaching  to  be  that  recognized  by 
Timothy  in  his  instinctive  youthful  abstinence 
from  all  wine,  and  in  his  adherence  to  what  he 
regarded  Christ's  law  so  strictly,  that  it  required 
an  apostle's  injunction  to  use  but  "a  little  even 
as  a  medicine"  (i  Tim.  v.  23).  Certainly,  at  the 
era  when  civil  law,  for  the  first  time,  began  to  be 
controlled  by  New  Testament  principles,  prohib- 
itory legislation  and  abstinence  as  a  Christian 
duty  lost  none  of  the  old  Grecian  wisdom  and 
Roman  virtue  when  regulations  as  to  wine- 
drinking  passed  from  the  moral  conviction  of 
Christian  churches  to  the  civil  control  of  Chris- 
tian communities. 

Yet  another  influence  growing  out  of  old 
Grecian  and  Roman  religious  sentiment  now 
arose.  The  ablest  Christian  apologists,  in  de- 
fending the  Christian  faith  as  rational,  had  ap- 
pealed to  the  teachings  of  Grecian  poets  and 
sages,  and  of  Roman  poets  and  statesmen,  on 
questions  of  religious  doctrine  and  moral  prac- 
tice. Under  Constantine,  this  power  of  appeal 
was  made  most  effective.  Constantine  himself, 
as  Eusebius  in  his  life  of  Constantine  shows, 
used  the  arguments  of  Cicero  and  appealed  to 
the  religious  spirit  of  Virgil.  Lactantius,  the 
instructor  of  Crispus,  the  elder  son  of  Constan- 
tine, in  his  Divine  Institutions  (Lib.  I.  de  Relig. 
Fals.),  quotes  Virgil,  called  "  Maro,  first  of  our 


2o8  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines, 

poets  "  (Georgi  cs  ii.  3  2  5 ,  and  i v.  2  3 1 ,  ^/  seq?) ,  as  de- 
scribing the  direct  and  good  hand  of  the  Divine 
Being  in  Creation  and  Providence.  Many  Chris- 
tian scholars  of  that  and  subsequent  ages,  alluded 
to  Virgil's  Pollio,  the  Fourth  Bucolic,  as  a  proph- 
ecy of  Christ.  Artists  placed  him  among  the 
Old  Testament  prophets,  and  his  verses  were 
quoted  as  Christian  epitaphs  in  the  catacombs. 
The  impartial  judgment  of  modern  scholarship 
decides  that  Virgil  was  to  the  Romans  the  fore- 
runner of  the  Gospel  to  the  Gentiles,  as  was  John 
to  the  Jews.  His  Bucolics,  or  pastorals,  present 
the  shepherd's  simple  faith  and  life,  and  his 
Georgics,  or  agricultural,  that  of  the  Roman 
husbandman ;  as  unlike  as  were  the  shepherds  of 
Bethlehem  to  the  courtiers  of  Rome  at  Jerusalem. 
His  ^neid  presents  the  power  of  a  "religious" 
hero,  recognized  by  his  brother.  Hector,  as  the  re- 
storer of  his  fallen  country  from  its  vices,  and  the 
founder  of  the  State  whose  pious  laws  as  to  wine 
Romulus  and  Numa  afterward  framed.  Virgil's 
Georgics  are  all  studded  with  the  blessing  of  the 
wheat  and  vine,  of  the  grape  (uva),  its  juice 
(humorem),  and  its  unfermented  wine  (must- 
um),  while  intoxicating  wine  has  little  place. 
His  Fourth  Bucolic,  "The  Pollio,"  pictures  a 
"  Redeemer"  to  come ;  in  whose  time  (l.  21-40), 
the  "  milk"  of  the  flock  and  the  "ruddy  grape" 
among  the  hedges  will  need  no  labor,  and  the 


Athanasius  on  Law  as  to  Wines.       209 

"vine  endure  no  pruning-hook."  His  Fifth  Bu- 
colic, fitting  successor  to  the  fourth,  pictures  as 
the  purer  worship  of  his  country's  rural  population 
(1.  65-71),  altars  reared  to  Daphnis  and  Apollo, 
the  gentle  shepherd  and  the  sage  in  youth  ;  while 
the  offerings  at  their  festivals  are  "  new  milk," 
fresh  "  olive-oil "  and  abundant  gifts  of  "  Bacchus,' 
whose  quality  is  described  in  this  line  :  "  Vina 
novum  fundam  calathis  Arvisia  nectar \''  in 
English  paraphase:  "I  wnll  pour  from  goblets, 
fresh -strained  sweet  grape-juice,  equal  to  the 
choice  Arvisian  wines  of  Chios'  isle." 

Athanasius,  again,  the  stern  theologian  who 
ruled  at  the  Council  of  Nice,  a.d.  325,  in  his 
view  of  the  law  of  wines,  agreed  with  Roman 
and  Christian  ;  like  Eusebius,  urging  entire  absti- 
nence from  intoxicants  as  temperance.  Allud- 
ing to  the  custom  then  prevailing  among  Chris- 
tians, of  abstaining  from  intoxicating  wines,  in 
his  appeal  to  the  many  men  in  high  position 
who,  after  Constantine's  conversion,  still  re- 
mained pagans,  Athanasius  cites  as  justification 
of  the  Christian's  scrupulousness  as  to  wines  this 
fact  (Orat.  ad  Gent.  I.  c.  24)  :  "  Some  Egyptians, 
indeed,  pour  out  wine  in  their  libations  to  their 
gods,  but  others  only  water."  Again,  urging 
purity  of  life  in  all  relations,  he  cites  (De  Virg.) 
Paul's  injunction  to  the  Roman  Christians  (xiv. 
I,  23)  :  That  he  who  "doubts  as  to  the  influence 


2IO  The  Diviiie  Law  as  to  Wines. 

of  wine-drinking  on  himself  or  on  others,  should 
abstain  from  its  use;"  and  he  regards  this  in- 
junction of  Paul  as  necessarily  implying  the 
duty  of  abstinence. 

In  the  latter  part  of  this  age,  Epiphanius,  the 
ablest  writer  of  that  day  as  a  critic  in  theology, 
intimates  (Haer.  19  to  46),  that  the  success  of 
various  ascetic  sects,  successively  appearing  from 
the  second  to  the  fourth  centuries,  is  to  be 
ascribed  to  the  strong  sentiment  opposed  to  the 
use  of  intoxicating  wines.  Among  these  were 
the  Ebionites,  the  Tatians,  and  the  Manichees ; 
who  used  either  syrup  and  water,  milk,  or  simple 
water,  in  observing  the  Lord's  Supper.  On 
account  of  this  peculiarity,  the  Greek  title  "  Hy- 
droparastatoi,"  or  "  Water-band,"  and  the  Latin 
soubriquet  "Aquarii,"  or  "  Waterers,"  was  applied 
to  them.  The  conviction  which  leads  to  ex- 
tremes, in  this,  as  in  every  age,  is  testimony  to  a 
vital  truth. 

WINE    UNDER    CHRISTIAN    EMPERORS    TILL    THE 
DIVISION    OF    THE    WEST    AND    EAST. 

Till  the  division  of  the  Roman  empire,  virtu- 
ally accomplished  a.d.  395  under  Honorius  at 
Rome  and  Arcadius  at  Constantinople,  though 
not  fully  realized  till  the  fall  of  Rome  before  the 
Goths,  A.r,  475,  a  community  of  sentiment,  de- 


Basil  and  Cyril  on  Bible  Wines,       2  n 

spite  varied  differences,  prevailed,  which  showed 
itself  in  testimony  against  intoxicating  wine. 

Basil,  the  recognized  head  of  the  ancient  as 
well  as  modern  Greek  Church,  bishop  of  Cappa- 
docia,  in  Asia  Minor,  a.d.  370  to  379,  in  com- 
menting on  the  songs  of  deliverance  "of  men 
redeemed,"  as  was  David  when  he  wrote  Psalm 
xxxii.  7,  as  contrasted  with  the  songs  of  mid- 
night banqueters,  cites  this  allusion  of  David  as 
illustrating  Christ's  spiritual  principle  in  the 
figure  of  the  "  new  wine  in  old  bottles ; "  and  he 
follows  it  with  severe  denunciation  of  those  who 
seek  pleasure  from  the  use  of  intoxicating  wine. 
On  Isaiah  v.  22,  after  dwelling  on  the  "woe" 
that  falls  on  a  people  when  their  rulers  drink 
wine,  he  cites  the  duty  of  abstinence  taught  in 
Moses'  Law  for  the  Nazarites,  and  in  Solomon's 
counsel,  "  Look  not  on  the  wine."  Applying  this 
truth  to  ministers  of  the  Christian  religion,  he 
says :  "  It  is  becoming  (prepei)  that  ministers 
of  the  New  Testament,  in  like  manner,  abstain 
from  wine."  Going  farther,  he  states  this  as  a 
fact  in  Grecian  history :  "  Rulers  (hoi  dynastai), 
do  not  drink  wine  ; "  and  he  adds :  "  We  who  are 
rulers  (dynastai)  likewise,  to  the  people,  should 
not  yield  in  the  least  to  vice." 

Cyril,  bishop  of  Jerusalem  a.d.  381  to  386, 
another  light  of  the  Greek  Church,  urges  absti- 
nence from  wine  on  catechumens  looking  for- 


212  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

ward  to  reception  into  the  Christian  Church , 
and  referring  to  Psalm  civ.  15,  and  John  ii.  9,  he 
uses  this  remarkable  expression.  After  stating 
(Cataches.  IX.  9),  that  God  is  the  author  of  all 
good  things,  he  says  :  "  Water,  indeed,  is  wine  in 
vines  "  (To  hydor  oinos  men  en  ampelois)  ;  thus 
implying  that  the  pure  juice  of  the  grape  is  refer- 
red to  in  Psalm  civ.  15,  since  that  pure  juice  alone 
is  of  God's  formation ;  and  also  directly  stating 
that  the  wine  created  from  water  by  Christ  at  the 
wedding  feast,  was  the  same  pure  product.  On 
Acts  ii.  13,  referring  to  the  expression  ''gleukous 
memestomenoi"  (Latin  translation,  "  musto  ple- 
ni "),  Cyril  says :  '*  They  spoke  not  sincerely,  but 
ironically  (chleuastikos)  ; "  and  adding  his  own 
spiritual  comment,  he  remarks :  "  New  (neos), 
indeed,  was  that  wine  (oinos)  ;  the  grace  of  the 
new  covenant."  Alluding  again  (Cath.  IV.  2']) 
to  Paul's  direction  to  Timothy  (i  Tim.  v.  23),  he 
says  that  the  use  of  "  a  little  wine  "  is  "  not  to  be 
condemned,  if  used  for  infirmity ; "  but,  hinting 
that  this  plea  is  often  but  a  pretence,  he  adds : 
"  Yet  the  sick  are  often  to  be  denied,  when  they 
ask  the  appointed  nurse  (prokathezomenon)." 
These  specially  clear  testimonies  of  Cyril  are  the 
more  important,  because  he  was  one  of  the  ablest 
scholars  of  his  day,  and  wrote  in  the  very  home 
of  David  and  of  Jesus,  on  whose  words  he  com- 


Theodoret  and  yerome  on  Bible  Wines.  213 

mented,  and  only  three  centuries  after  the  apos- 
tles wrote. 

Theodoret,  one  of  the  purest  lights  of  his  own, 
or  of  any  Christian  age,  a  winning  representative 
of  the  early  Greek  Church,  commenting  on  the 
laws  of  bodily  health,  and  of  moral  purity,  indi- 
cated in  the  Mosaic  statutes,  as  to  diet,  in  Lev. 
chap,  xi.,  cites  the  kindred  provisions  of  the  New 
Testament,  found  in  the  teachings  of  Paul,  as  to 
luxuries  of  the  table.  He  specially  urges  absti- 
nence from  intoxicating  wines. 

The  great  Bible  student  of  this  and  all  ages 
was  Jerome  ;  one  who  has  already,  in  part,  been 
cited.  As  a  representative  of  the  early  Church 
at  Rome,  yet  spending  half  his  life  in  the  land  of 
Jesus  and  of  the  first  apostles,  his  translation  of  the 
Greek  New  Testament  into  Latin  became  the 
foundation  of  the  Latin  Vulgate  ;  while  his  volu- 
minous commentaries  and  epistles  are  an  inval- 
uable treasure  in  every  department  of  Biblical 
science.  On  Hosea  ii.  9,  he  defines  tiros k  as 
"  the  fruit  of  the  vintage " ;  his  comment  cor- 
responding with  his  translation  already  noted. 
In  commenting  on  Amos  ix.  15,  he  compares 
the  "  blood  of  Christ "  to  the  "  red  must"  flowing 
into  the  wine-vat.  Upon  Matt.  ix.  17,  he  says 
that  new  skins  (utres),  must  be  used  for  wine 
that  is  to  be  preserved  as  "  must,"  because  the  re- 


214  The  Divme  Lazv  as  to  Whies. 

mains  of  former  ferment  attaches  to  old  skins ; 
and  he  regards  this  to  be  the  essential  point  in 
Christ's  comparison ;  that  the  soul  (anima)  in 
which  His  truth  will  be  safely  deposited,  must  be 
entirely  renovated  and  freed  from  all  remains  of 
former  corruption,  so  as  to  be  "  polluted  with 
no  contagion  of  former  vice."  In  commenting 
(Matt.  xxvi.  26-29)  o^  Christ's  choice  of  lan- 
guage :  "  I  will  not  drink  henceforth  of  t\\\s  fruit 
of  the  vine','  he  takes  for  granted,  as  understood 
by  all,  that  "  must "  is  referred  to ;  and  he  cites  as 
illustrative  of  the  wine  at  the  supper,  the  fresh 
grape-juice  of  Gen.  xl.  11,  and  the  "  noble  vine" 
of  Jer.  ii.  21,  as  indicating  the  character  of  the 
"  vine"  as  well  as  of  its  product,  which  is  referred 
to  in  Christ's  words,  "  I  am  the  vine."  On  Gal. 
v.  16-21,  among  the  "  lusts  of  the  flesh,"  Jerome 
mentions  wine-drinking,  and  urges  the  duty  of 
abstinence  from  wines.  He  says:  "  In  wine  is 
excess  ;  as  taught  in  Eph.  v.  18,  youth  should  flee 
wine  as  they  would  poison."  Alluding  to.  the 
plea  that  Christ  used  wine  at  the  supper,  and  that 
Paul  recommended  the  use  of  wine  to  Timothy, 
Jerome  says :  "  Elsewhere,  we  were  made  ac- 
quainted with  both  the  wine  to  be  consecrated 
into  the  blood  of  Christ  and  the  wine  ordered  to 
Timothy  that  he  should  drink  it."  The  Latin  of 
Jerome  is  "  Alioquin  sciebamus,  et  in  Christi 
sanguinemvinum  consecrari  et  vinum  Timotheo 


yerotne  on  Abstinence  as  Temperance.  215 

ut  biberet  imperatum."  Some  prefer  to  make 
•'  vinum  "  the  subject  of  two  infinitives  rather 
than  the  object  of"  sciebamus ;"  but  the  laws  of 
grammatical  construction  in  the  use  of  a  subject- 
accusative,  seem  to  forbid  any  other  rendering 
than  that  given.  The  practical  bearing  of  the 
statement  is  not  affected,  however,  by  a  change 
of  rendering ;  since  Jerome  has  elsewhere  stated 
what  he  here  seems  to  refer  to ;  namely,  that  the 
wine  used  at  the  supper,  and  as  medicine,  was  the 
wine  without  alcohol  commended  by  Roman  and 
Greek  physicians.  On  Eph.  v.  18,  Jerome  al- 
ludes to  Aristotle's  principle  that  the  virtue  of 
temperance  hinges  on  two  rules :  first,  in  using 
food  and  drink  that  are  in  themselves  nourishing, 
temperance  is  the  mean  between  gluttony  and" 
abstemiousness ;  second,  that  entire  abstinence 
from  all  that  is  injurious  is  temperance.  He 
says  that  Paul  declares  that  wine  in  any  quan- 
tity, used  merely  as  a  beverage,  is  an  "  excess." 
Paul's  teaching,  he  says,  is  Christ's  principle ; 
"  Ye  can  not  serve  two  masters  "  ;  "  ye  can  not 
be  filled  with  the  Spirit  and  with  wine."  Hence, 
he  argues,  "  I  would  say  that  wine  is  to  be  en- 
tirely abstained  from  in  youth  ; "  according  to 
the  warning  of  Moses,  Deut.  xxxii.  32,  33: 
"  Their  wine  is  the  poi.son  of  dragons,"  etc.  He 
concludes :  "  To  this  wine,  that  is  contrary 
which   the   Lord  promises  that   He  will   drink 


2i6  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

with  us  in  His  kingdom."  Yet  again,  in  his  let- 
ter to  Eustochius  (xxii.  8),  Jerome  urges  the 
duty  of  entire  abstinence  from  wine,  and  replies 
again  to  the  two  objections  above  referred  to. 
As  to  the  wine  that  "  is  consecrated  into  the 
blood  of  Christ,"  he  refers  to  the  statements  of 
Matthew  and  Luke,  that  it  was  the  fresh  "  fruit 
of  the  vine."  As  to  the  wine  ordered  by  Paul 
to  Timothy,  it  was  as  a  physician's  prescription  ; 
"  a  little,"  and  that  "  as  a  medicine."  Of  the  good 
Samaritan's  surgical  application  he  says  (Hom. 
in  Luc.  xxxiv.)  :  "  By  the  oil  the  swellings  of 
the  wounds  were  soothed  (sedarentur)  ;  but  by 
the  wine  he  also  cleansed  (mundat)  the  wounds." 
That  Jerome  was  not  swayed  by  ascetic  tend- 
encies in  these  comments  is  indicated  by  his  per- 
fect accord  with  other  eminent  men  of  his  day, 
in  their  remonstrances  against  the  use,  at  the 
Lord's  Supper,  of  any  other  liquor  than  wine ; 
commending  "  wine  diluted  with  water "  where 
the  fresh  juice  of  the  grape,  or  preserved  unfer- 
mented  wine  could  not  be  obtained.  As  Am- 
brose, at  Milan,  in  northern  Italy  (De  Sacram. 
Liv.),Chrysostom  at  Constantinople  (Homil.  in 
Matt.  82),  and  Augustine  at  Carthage,  in  Africa 
(Sermons  IX.  to  CCCLXXIL),  representing  the 
most  extreme  outposts  of  the  Christian  Church, 
all  accorded  in  commending  the  use  of  unintoxi- 
cating  wine   at  the  Lord's   Supper,  diluting  it 


Muhammed  on  Wine-Drinking.        217 

when  essential  to  this  end,  yet  never  changing 
the  element  typical  of  Christ's  blood,  so  Jerome 
indicates  his  balanced  conviction  on  Mark  xiv. 
24,  25.  Having  apparently  in  mind  the  Latins 
of  the  north  for  whom  Mark  wrote  (as  the  Latin 
words  used  by  Mark  indicate  and  all  history  con- 
firms), Jerome  refers  to  the  "wine  and  water" 
used  in  countries  where  the  fresh  product  of  the 
vine  could  not  be  obtained;  and  he  remarks 
that  the  water  in  grape-juice  is  the  emblem 
of  Christian  "  purification,"  and  the  nutritive 
element  of  his  "salvation."  The  modern  cus- 
tom of  the  Jews  residing  out  of  Palestine  indi- 
cates that  Jerome  here  refers  to  raisin-wine  as 
now  made  by  Jews. 

WINES    IN    THE    KORAN,    AND     IN    MUHAMMEDAN 
HISTORY. 

The  breaking  down  of  the  Roman  empire  in 
the  West,  and  the  many  corruptions  of  the  State 
Church,  prepared  the  way  for  the  Arabian  proph- 
et; while  his  respect  for  the  Old  and  New 
Testament  records,  as  well  as  some  of  his  own 
teachings,  gave  currency  to  his  professed  revela- 
tions. Yet  more ;  the  teachers  of  Muhammed 
were  his  wife's  uncle,  a  learned  Jew,  and  a  Greek 
Christian,  who  led  him  especially  to  the  study 
of  Jerome,  whose  statements  as  to  mtc»xicating 
wines  we  have  just  considered. 
10 


2 1 8  The  Divine  Laiv  as  to  Wines. 

Muhammed's  teachings  as  to  wine  are  illustra- 
tive of  the  purely  human  origin  of  his  professed 
revelations ;  since  they  show  the  same  early  con- 
viction, the  same  mature  purpose  amid  struggles  for 
power,  and  the  same  seduction  of  fashion  and  lux- 
ury after  success,  which  characterized  the  careers 
of  Cyrus,  and  of  Alexander.  In  his  first  vision 
(Sura  ii.),  impressed  with  the  experience  of  older 
men,  and  of  earlier  ages,  he  writes :  "  They  will 
ask  thee  concerning  wine  and  lots  ;  answer,  In 
both  there  is  great  sin,  and  also  things  of  great 
use  to  man  ;  but  their  sinfulness  is  greater  than 
their  use : "  in  which  the  influence  of  Old  Testa- 
ment precepts  is  apparent.  At  a  later  period,  at 
Medina,  after  his  flight  from  Mecca,  when  his 
followers,  gathering  from  interest  and  partisan  ri- 
valry, were  to  be  disciplined  as  soldiers  (Sura  v.), 
Muhammed  thus  wrote :  "  O  true  believers,  surely 
wine,  and  lots,  and  idols,  and  divination  are  an 
abomination  of  the  work  of  Satan ;  therefore 
avoid  them  that  ye  may  prosper " ;  a  precept 
which,  from  its  combination  of  prohibitions, 
Sale,  the  learned  English  translator  and  com- 
mentator on  the  Koran,  traces  (Prelim.  Disc.  c. 
v.)  to  Jerome.  Finally,  amid  the  luxury  of  his 
later  life,  which  led  to  his  disgraceful  fifth  mar- 
riage (Sura  xxxiii.),  Muhammed  shows  that  his 
advocacy  of  abstinence  from  wine  had  been  only  a 
prudential  suggestion,  that  he  might  have  a  well 


Muhammtd' s  Inconsistency  as  to  Wines.   219 

disciplined  and  hardy  soldiery ;  for  to  those  who 
by  abstinence  fit  themselves  to  "  fight  valiantly 
for  the  true  faith,"  he  promises  a  Paradise  fur- 
nished with  every  luxury  for  the  palate  ;  among 
which  is  a  "  wine,"  manifestly  the  unintoxicating 
juice  of  the  grape,  since  it  is  mentioned  among 
other  simple  products  of  nature.  His  picture  is 
thus  worded  (Sura  xlvii.)  :  "  A  description  of 
Paradise  which  is  promised  unto  the  pious.; 
therein  are  rivers  of  incorruptible  water ;  rivers 
of  milk,  the  taste  whereof  changes  not ;  rivers  of 
wine  pleasant  unto  those  who  drink ;  rivers  of 
clarified  syrup  ;  and  therein  with  these,  all  kinds 
of  fruits."  Again,  at  a  later  day,  and  in  a  different 
mood,  as  the  surrounding  associations  of  his 
own  debauchery,  as  well  as  of  his  increasing 
luxury  and  licentiousness  alike  indicate,  Mu- 
hammed  promises  a  Paradise  of  drunken  rev- 
elry. Set  over  against  the  most  fearful  pictures 
of  hell,  we  have  (Sura  Iv.  and  Ivi.)  these 
glimpses  of  Paradise :  "  They  that  approach 
near  unto  God  shall  dwell  in  gardens  of  de- 
light ;  reposing  on  couches  adorned  with  pre- 
cious stones,  whose  linings  are  of  silk  interwoven 
with  gold  thread.  There  shall  attend  them 
beauteous  damsels,  having  large  black  eyes, 
whom  no  man  shall  have  before  deflowered, 
lying  on  green  cushions  and  beautiful  carpets, 
a  reward  to  the  faithful  for  that  which  they  shall 


220         The  Divine  Law  as  to  PVznes. 

have  wrought.  Youth,  who  shall  be  in  perpet- 
ual bloom,  shall  go  round  about  to  attend  them, 
with  goblets  and  beakers,  and  a  tureen  of  flow- 
ing wine.  Their  heads  shall  not  ache  by  drink- 
ing the  same,  neither  shall  their  reason  by  it  be 
disturbed." 

It  is  not  surprising  that  these  three  phases  of 
Muhammed's  life  and  teaching  have  had  their 
separate  and  distinct  effect  on  the  three  leading 
nationalities  and  races  brought  under  the  forced 
sway  of  Muhammedan  military  despotism.  The 
Arabian  Muhammedans,  of  the  Semitic  or  true 
Asiatic  type  in  features,  language,  and  mental 
cast,  in  whose  native  tongue  the  Koran  is  writ- 
ten, and  from  whose  ranks  the  learned  class  or 
"  men  of  the  book  "  are  chiefly  drawn,  adhere  to 
the  letter  of  Muhammed's  second  precept  in  the 
day  of  his  own  trial  and  discipline ;  and  they 
abstain  entirely  from  wine.  The  Persians,  of 
Aryan  stock,  in  language  and  mental  cast 
philosophic,  artistic,  and  enterprising,  follow 
generally  Muhammed's  first  and  balanced  pre- 
cept ;  and  while  using  wine,  are  not,  as  a  people, 
given  to  it.  The  Turks,  of  Turanian  stock, 
whose  language  is  of  a  family  not  yet  sufficiently 
elaborated  to  be  fitted  for  finished  literatuie,  the 
"  men  of  the  sword "  may  be  abstemious  from 
compulsion  ;  but  naturally,  and  from  the  very 
spirit  of  the  last  teachings  of  the  Koran,  they 


Arabic  for  Unintoxicating  Wine.      221 

drink  to  excess  when  at  ease  after  conquest ;  the 
present  reigning  family  being  noted  for  use  of 
absinthe. 

It  is  especially  to  be  observed  that  in  all  ages, 
the  Arabians,  as  their  language  attests,  have  pre- 
served the  customs  which  prevailed  among  all 
the  great  nations  bordering  on  the  eastern  shore 
of  the  Mediterranean,  among  whose  people  they 
have  mingled.  They  have  always,  like  the 
Egyptians  and  Hebrews,  the  Greeks  and  the 
Romans,  prepared  two  kinds  of  wine,  intoxicat- 
ing and  unintoxicating.  The  former  class  is 
styled  "  chamreh  "  from  "  chamar,"  to  effervesce 
or  inebriate ;  inebriation  giving  effervescence  of 
spirits.  The  latter  class,  called  "  sherbets  "  from 
"sherab,"  to  drink,  are  unfermented.  The  dis- 
tinct character  of  these  two  wines  in  Arabian 
history  and  literature,  can  be  traced  by  the  aid 
of  Freytag's  Arabic  Lexicon,  in  which  both  are 
rendered  by  the  Latin  term  "  vinum."  Their 
modern  acceptation  in  the  spoken  language,  may 
be  seen  in  the  pocket  vocabularies  published  at 
Paris  for  French  settlers  in  Algiers;  in  which 
both  "  chamreh  "  and  "  sherbet "  are  rendered 
"  vin."  Though  the  sherbets  drunk  in  western 
Asia,  especially  at  Constantinople,  the  Turkish 
capital,  are  male  of  syrups  expressed  and  de- 
cocted from  the  juices  of  varied  fruits,  the  orig- 
inal and  the  present   rural  "sherbet,"  in   vine- 


222  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

growing  regions  of  the  Levant,  is  the  old  Latin 
must  and  Greek  gleukos,  or  unfermented  grape- 
juice. 

WINE    IN    THE    MEDIAEVAL    ROMAN    CATHOLIC 
CHURCH. 

The  acceptance  by  Muhammed  of  most  of 
the  leading  facts,  doctrines,  and  precepts  of  the 
New  Testament,  in  part  as  a  support  to  his 
own  claims,  exerted  a  double  influence  on  the 
Christian  world,  over  so  large  a  portion  of  which 
his  military  power  extended.  It  also  pointed 
out  errors  of  Christian  interpretation  and  conse- 
quent departures  from  Gospel  faith  and  practice  ; 
making  the  study  of  Christian  doctrine  and 
precept  in  this  age  especially  instructive,  since 
it  led  to  that  more  comprehensive  scholarship 
which  was  developed  under  Alfred,  of  England, 
and  Charlemagne,  of  France.  The  increased 
ecclesiastical  authority  of  Roman  bishops,  who 
claimed  patriarchal  sway  as  popes,  or  supreme 
fathers,  to  which,  under  Pepin  and  Charlemagne, 
was  added  acknowleged  supremacy  in  matters 
of  religious  doctrine  and  duty,  stimulated  in 
Italy  the  same  spirit  of  inquiry  that  had  found  a 
new  life  north  of  the  Alps.  As  in  all  ages  of 
advanced  culture,  the  study  of  wines  in  theii 
influence  on  health  and  morals  had  its  place 
This  can  be  traced  in  several  lines  of  inquiry. 


Classic  Arabic  for  Unintoxicaiing  Wine.   223 

The  prevalence  of  the  Arabic  language  after 
the  Muhammedan  conquests,  the  high  place  the 
New  Testament  history  had  been  made  to  take 
in  the  third  and  following  "  Sura"  of  the  Koran, 
and  the  scholarly  conflict  of  the  two  systems  of 
religion,  led  to  the  preparation,  in  Spain,  about 
the  middle  of  the  eighth  century,  of  a  finished 
translation  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments  into 
the  language  of  the  Koran.  The  term  by  which 
the  Hebrew  tirosh  is  translated  is  'etsir,  from  the 
verb  'eisar;  whose  three  consonants  are  "  ain, 
sad,  ra."  The  first  and  fundamental  definition 
of  this  verb  in  Freytag's  Lexicon  is  "  pressit 
(uvas),  expressit  (succum)  " ;  he  presses  (grapes 
understood),  he  presses  out  (juice).  The  defini- 
tion of  the  noun  is  "  succus  expressus,"  juice 
pressed  out ;  a  definition  confirming  the  entire 
list  of  Hebrew  and  Rabbinic,  of  Greek  and  Latin 
authorities  thus  far  cited.  In  the  New  Testa- 
ment the  words  "new  wine,"  in  Mark  ii.  22  and 
parallel  passages,  is  rendered  "  el-chamer  el-je- 
did,"  or  "  wine  newly  prepared  ; "  Freytag's  ren- 
dering of  "  el-jedid  "  being  "  novus  et  hinc  .... 
noviter  confectus,"  new,  and  hence  newly  made. 
In  John  ii.  10,  the  words  "good  wine"  are  ren- 
dered "  el-chamer  el-jid  " ;  "  el-jid,"  indicating 
that  which  is  "  new  "  in  excellence  of  preserva- 
tion ;  the  verb  having  as  a  leading  meaning  "  ce- 
pit  novum,  renovavit,"  he  takes  as  new,  he  re- 


224         The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines, 

news.  The  rendering  of  "  the  fruit  of  the  vine/ 
used  at  the  close  of  the  Passover  feast  (Luke 
xxii.  i8),  is  "  themer  el-kerim,"  "  fructus  uvse"  in 
Freytag,  or  "  fruit  of  the  grape."  The  rendering 
of  the  kindred  expression  of  Christ  as  to  the  cup 
at  the  supper,  is  made  yet  more  definite  by  the 
words  "  'etsir  el-keremeh,"  "  the  expressed  juice 
of  the  generous  grape."  In  the  mocking  expres- 
sion in  Acts  ii.  13,  whose  derisive  character  is  in- 
dicated clearly  in  the  Arabic,  the  word  for  new 
wine  is  "  selafeh  " ;  which  Freytag  thus  defines : 
"  succus  primus,  qui  ex  uvis  nondum  pressis,  fluit ; 
2W<?,  vinum  optimum,"  the  first  juice  which  flows 
from  the  grapes  not  yet  pressed ;  hence,  the  best 
wine.  The  entire  correspondence  of  this  view 
of  the  eighth  century  with  the  descriptions  of 
the  Roman  Cato,  Columella  and  Pliny  as  to  the 
selection  of  grape-juice  for  the  best  preserved 
must  or  unfermented  wine,  is  perfectly  apparent. 
The  character  of  the  wine  commended  to  Arabic 
Christians  as  that  selected  by  Christ  for  the 
supper,  is  equally  apparent.  Indirectly,  and 
therefore  the  more  satisfactorily,  the  expression 
"  best  wine  "  as  that  made  from  water  by  Christ 
(John  ii.  10),  is  demonstrated. 

As  above  intimated,  this  translation,  designed 
to  be  true,  and  to  commend  the  truth  to  the  then 
dominant  Arabian  intellect,  is  indicative  of  a 
spirit  prevailing  throughout  the  Roman  Church 


Mediaval  Wine  at  the  Lord's  Supper.  225 

for  centuries.  Bersalibi,  an  Arabian  Christian, 
in  an  Arabian  tract  on  the  Eucharist,  says: 
"  When  good  wine "  (referring  to  the  Arabic 
version)  "is  not  to  be  obtained,  the  juice  of 
grapes  may  be  taken  ;  or  the  liquor  expressed 
from  dried  grapes  or  raisins."  At  this  age,  also, 
when  the  effort  to  make  the  ordinances  adapted 
to  all  climes  became  a  Christian  necessity,  per- 
mission by  papal  authority  was  given,  to  use  not 
only  grape-juice,  when  unfermented  wine  could 
not  be  obtained,  but  also  syrup  of  other  fruits, 
and  even  milk.  When,  at  a  later  period,  the  cup 
was  withheld  from  the  laity,  its  propriety,  among 
other  things,  was  based  on  the  danger,  which 
even  Augustine  had  admitted,  that  it  might  be 
a  temptation  in  case  of  men  "given  to  wine" 
(vinolentorum).  In  meeting  also  the  "heretics," 
or  "separatists"  from  the  Catholic  Church,  who 
would  substitute  some  other  liquor  for  wine  at 
the  supper,  the  language  of  Jerome,  and  of  the 
Latin  Vulgate  as  to  the  nature  of  the  wine  used 
by  Christ  at  the  supper,  was  recalled  and  re- 
stated. In  later  controversies  with  the  Greek 
Church,  in  which  wine  greatly  diluted  was  used, 
the  same  truth  was  recalled  in  defence.  The  full 
development  of  this  Mediaeval  Roman  Church 
history,  may  be  traced  in  Bingham's  exhaustive 
"  Origines  Ecclesiasticae  "  (B.  XV.  c.  ii),  London. 
1810. 


226  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

Another  phase  of  the  same  fundamental  truth 
came  up  in  the  decrees  of  councils  and  decisions 
of  popes  as  to  monks,  who  were  regarded  as  the 
guardians  of  the  intellectual  life  of  the  Church, 
but  whose  scholarship  and  high  moral  aim  led 
them  to  the  abstinence  of  the  Hebrew  Nazarites  ; 
an  abstemiousness  which  often  led  to  scruples 
as  to  the  use  of  any  fruit  of  the  vine,  even  at  the 
Lord's  Supper.  Any  one  disposed  to  an  ex- 
haustive study  in  this  line,  can  trace  it  in  the  nu- 
merous foHos  of  the  "  Acta  Sanctorum,"  or 
"Acts  of  Saints,"  compiled  by  the  Jesuit  Bol- 
landus,  and  published  at  Antwerp,  a.d.  1643. 

The  late  period  to  which  this  discussion  was 
extended,  as  well  as  the  results  to  which  it  in 
every  age  led,  is  finally  indicated  in  the  writings 
of  Thomas  Aquinas,  the  so-styled  "Angelical 
Doctor,"  the  eminent  Italian  Dominican  of  the 
thirteenth  century.  His  masterly  comprehen- 
siveness in  research,  shown  in  his  "  Summa  The- 
ologica,"  has  a  present  interest,  because  it  is 
commended  as  authoritative  in  questions  of 
modern  philosophy  by  Pope  Leo  XHI.  in  his 
Encyclical  Address  to  the  nations  of  Catholic 
Europe,  and  of  the  world,  issued  Aug.,  1879. 

The  essential  question  as  to  the  wine  to  be 
used  in  the  Lord's  Supper,  is  indicated  by  the 
title  of  his  tract  (B.  IV.  Quaest.  74),  "  Utrum 
mustum  in  Sacramentis " ;  Whether  must  should 


Aquiftas  on  Must  at  the  Lord's  Supper,  227 

be  used  in  the  Sacraments.  Having  personally 
adopted  the  philosophy  of  the  Grecian  Aristotle 
as  the  highest  wisdom  and  law,  having  as  a  popu- 
lar preacher  at  Paris,  north  of  the  Alps,  become 
familiar  with  the  practical  difficulty  in  obtaining 
wine  for  the  Lord's  Supper  that  was  in  all  re- 
spects appropriate,  and  being  then  called  to 
Rome  as  special  counsellor,  a.d.  1261,  by  Pope 
Urban  IV.,  under  whom  the  present  belief  and 
practice  of  the  Roman  Church  as  to  the  wine  in 
the  cup  took  permanent  form,  the  Angelical 
Doctor  sought  to  harmonize  the  necessity  of  the 
law  of  nature  with  the  authoritative  decisions  of 
the  Pontiff!  He  recurs  to  the  decree  (decretum) 
of  "  Pope  Julius  I.,"  as  he  styles  him.  Bishop  at 
Rome  A.D.  337  to  352,  issued  when,  just  after 
Constantine's  reign,  the  spread  of  Christianity  to 
remote  regions  called  for  a  liberal,  yet  consistent 
interpretation  of  the  "  fruit  of  the  vine  "  required 
for  the  Lord's  Supper.  He  says  that  Christ 
used  fresh  "  wine  of  the  vine  "  (vinum  vitis)  ;  he 
urges  that  "  true  wine  can  be  carried  to  those 
countries  where  there  are  no  vines ;  as  much  as 
is  sufficient  for  this  sacrament."  He  thinks  that 
vinegar  proper,  should  not  be  employed,  "  be- 
cause wine  is  made  vinegar  through  corruption." 
He  says,  however:  "Nevertheless  it  (true  wine) 
can  be  made  (confici)  of  wine  when  turning  acid 
(de  vino  acescente),  as  also  (the  wafer,  or  unleav- 


22  8  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines, 

ened  bread  of  the  supper)  of  the  bread  which  is 
on  the  way  to  corruption."  Alluding  to  wine 
of  wild-grapes  (agreste),  he  says  that  the  wild- 
grape,  always  acid,  is  "  in  the  way  of  develop- 
ment "  (generationis),  "  and  hence  is  not,  in  that 
state,  fitted  for  the  sacramental  service."  Refer- 
ring to  fresh  grape-juice  (mustum),  he  says : 
"  Must  has  already  the  nature  (speciem)  of  wine. 
Therefore  this  sacrament  can  be  performed  (con- 
fici)  with  must.  But  whole  grapes  (uvae  integrse)" 
/.  e.,  the  glutinous  or  fermenting  pulp  united  with 
the  saccharine  juice,  "  should  not  be  mixed  for 
this  sacrament,  since  there  would  be  something 
else  in  it  than  the  wine.  It  is  forbidden,  also, 
that  must  just  pressed  out  be  offered  in  the 
chalice ;  for  this  is  unfitting  (indecens),  because 
of  the  impurity  of  fresh  grape-juice  (mustum). 
Nevertheless,  in  necessity,  this  may  be  done; 
for  it  is  said  by  the  same  Pope,  Julius,  that  if  it 
should  be  necessary,  the  grape  cluster  may  be 
pressed  into  the  chalice."  How  manifestly  Ju- 
lius of  the  fourth  century,  and  Aquinas  in  the 
fifteenth,  are  bearing  testimony  to  the  real  nat- 
ure of  the  "  fruit  of  the  vine  "  used  by  Christ. 
Aquinas  is  equally  elaborate  in  treating  of  the 
use  of  diluted  wine,  as  distinct  from  simple  water 
in  the  cup. 


Communion  Wine  in  the  Greek  Church.   229 

WINE    IN    THE    GREEK    AND   ORIENTAL  CHURCHES. 

As  already  intimated,  in  the  Churches  of  the 
Eastern  clime,  the  home  of  Jesus,  and  among 
Christians  to  whom  the  Greek  of  the  New  Tes- 
tament was  vernacular,  there  was,  from  the  first, 
an  impression  that  when  unfermented  wine  was 
not  to  be  obtained,  the  cup  at  the  Lord's  Supper 
should  be  of  wine  diluted  with  water.  How 
far  this  may  have  been  an  impression  derived 
from  ancestral  tradition,  or  from  the  abstinence 
of  athletes  and  of  sages,  it  is  impossible,  perhaps, 
to  decide ;  as  also,  it  may  be  of  little  moment. 
The  universal  conviction,  however,  which  has 
prevailed  at  all  ages  in  the  Greek  Church,  and 
which  controls  its  present  practice,  is  of  value  to 
those  who  wish  to  reach  the  truth,  and  to  secure 
the  grace  which  is  dependent  pn  that  attain- 
ment. 

That  the  t  dditional  opinions  of  their  ancestry 
as  to  the  use  of  wine  in  social  convivialities  and 
in  religious  observances,  permanently  influenced 
the  Greek  mind,  is  indicated  by  the  selections 
from  Greek  poets  as  to  the  effects  of  wine  pre- 
served in  Anthologies.  Of  these,  no  less  than 
five  collections  were  successively  made  by  native 
Greeks ;  namely,  in  the  first,  second,  third  and 
fourth  centuries  by  Greeks  some  of  whom  were 
not  yet  Christians,  and  finally  in  the  tenth  and 


230  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

fourteenth  centuries  by  Christian  Greeks.  Of 
these  only  the  two  latter  are  known  to  be  in 
existence,  those  of  Cephalas  and  of  Planudes 
The  quotations  from  these  Anthologies  made  by 
such  modern  writers  as  Wilson,  reveal  partial 
truths  which  require  the  connections  of  history 
to  show  their  real  lesson. 

Many  of  the  writers  whose  preserved  frag- 
ments are  collected  by  Planudes,  refer  to  the 
diluting  of  wines  drunk  at  social  banquets,  the 
citations  being  kindred  to  those  made  by  Athe- 
naeus.  One  writer,  for  instance,  advises :  "  Water 
your  wine  "  to  secure  "  moderation,"  since,  if  too 
strong,  it  produces  either  "  grief  or  madness,"  i.  e., 
dejection  or  exhilaration.  It  would  be  a  need- 
less repetition  to  quote  at  length  kindred  utter- 
ances. The  fact  is  significant  that  these  utter- 
ances are  republished  by  a  native  Greek  who,  as 
an  intelligent  and  earnest  Christian  worker  at 
Constantinople,  a  century  before  its  fall,  also  re- 
published "y^isop's  Fables  "  because  their  moral 
lessons  were  needed  by  Christian  Greeks. 

The  early  Christian  Fathers,  already  cited, 
who  lived  on  the  Asiatic  and  African  border  of 
the  Mediterranean  Sea,  the  region  brought 
afterward  into  the  field  of  the  Eastern  or  Greek 
Church,  had  been,  from  their  location,  best  in- 
structed, and  therefore  most  emphatic  in  their 
opposition    to    intoxicating    wines.       Cyprian, 


Greek  Fathers  on  Bible  Wines.  231 

bishop  of  Carthage,  Africa,  from  a.d.  248  to 
258,  argued  at  length  (Epist.  63  ad.  Csecilium), 
for  the  use  of  wine  diluted  largely  with  water 
at  the  Lord's  Supper.  Bingham  (Orig.  Eccles. 
B.  XV.  c.  ii.)  cites  the  canons  enacted  at  Car- 
thage, and  in  Africa,  specially  the  third  at  Car- 
thage (Cone.  Carthag.  III.  can.  24),  at  which 
Augustine  was  present,  (also  Cone.  Afric.  can.  4), 
as  presenting  these  facts.  The  bread  and  wine 
for  the  great  communion  at  Easter  was  prepared 
from  the  fresh  products  brought  by  the  agricul- 
tural people  then  gathered.  The  law  required 
that  these  offerings  should  be  of  unground 
wheat  and  unpressed  grapes  (de  uvis  et  frumen- 
tis)  ;  of  these  the  bread  and  wine  were  to  be 
prepared  ;  and,  of  course,  the  cup  was  furnished 
with  unfermented  grape-juice,  as  the  bread  was 
of  unleavened  flour.  For  the  supper  at  inter- 
vening seasons  of  the  year,  and  in  all  locations, 
the  canon  of  the  Council  at  Carthage  prescribed  • 
"  That  in  sacraments  of  the  body  and  blood  ol 
the  Lord,  nothing  else  be  offered  but  what  the 
Lord  commanded ;  that  is,  bread  and  wine 
mixed  with  water  "  (vinum  aqua  mixtum). 

Basil  and  Theodoret,  already  quoted  as  lead- 
ers in  the  Greek  Church  before  its  separation 
from  the  Western  or  Roman,  were  specially 
clear  and  emphatic  in  their  statements  as  to 
wine   in    social   and   religious   uses.      Photius, 


232  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

again,  one  of  the  leaders  at  the  division  of  the 
two  churches,  from  a.d.  858  to  ZZ6,  is  equally 
suggestive.  His  comments  on  the  New  Testa- 
ment are  the  more  important  from  the  fact  that 
the  original  Greek  was  native  to  him.  On 
Mat.  ix.  17,  after  giving  the  statements  that  the 
"new  wine"  is  wine  yet  unfermented,  and 
which  should  always  be  so  kept,  Photius  illus- 
trates the  natural  law  by  which  Christ  indirectly 
taught  the  spiritual  purity  of  His  doctrine  as  fol- 
lows :  That  the  old  wine  represented  the  law 
(nomos),  the  new  wine  the  gospel  (evaggelion)  ; 
and  the  point  of  Christ's  lesson  is,  that  the  new 
wine  must  be  kept  in  new  bottles ;  intimating 
that  the  Gospel  rule  as  to  natural  wine  is  kindred 
to  the  Gospel  rule  as  to  spiritual  truth ;  or  that 
a  pure  spirit  must  have  a  pure  body  as  its 
earthly  abode. 

As  already  noted  in  all  the  long  controversy 
between  the  Roman  and  Greek  Churches, 
which  ended  in  their  separation,  the  Greek 
writers  contended  for  the  use  of  unfermented,  or 
greatly  diluted  wines  at  the  Sacrament.  Hence 
Photius  commended  the  Severians ;  of  whom 
he  says  :  "  They  were  averse  to  wine  as  the 
cause  of  drunkenness."  Yet  more,  the  Greek 
Church  were  specially  scrupulous  in  avoiding 
the  use  of  intoxicating  wine  at  the  eucharist, 
for  two   reasons ;  first,  they  insisted  that  the 


Early  Reformers  ott  Bible  Wines.       233 

cup  should  be  given  to  the  laity,  and  opposed 
the  Roman  Church  for  withholding  it ;  and 
second,  they  maintained  that  the  cup  should 
also  be  administered  to  infants.  Hence,  to  this 
day,  in  every  branch  of  the  Oriental  Church, 
including  the  Greek  and  the  Russian  Churches, 
the  wine  used  at  the  supper  is  diluted  largely 
with  water.  In  the  case  of  infants,  directly 
after  baptism,  the  priest  administers  the  two 
elements  of  the  supper  together ;  placing  a  mi- 
nute bread-crumb  in  a  spoon,  touching  it  to  the 
wine  till  it  is  saturated,  and  then  putting  the 
wine-saturated  crumb  into  the  child's  mouth. 
The  custom  of  thus  administering  both  elements 
together,  to  adults  as  well  as  children,  seems  to 
have  grown  out  of  the  desire  to  limit  to  a  few 
drops  the  amount  of  wine  received ;  and  so  to 
prevent  the  possibility  of  any  intoxicating  effect 
arising  from  the  sacred  ordinance. 

The  testimonies  of  travelers  in  the  African 
branches  of  the  Oriental  Church  are  uniform  as 
to  this  fact.  In  Abyssinia,  Egypt,  and  Ethiopia, 
where  Christianity  was  planted  in  the  apostles' 
time,  where  the  first  Christian  schools  grew  up, 
and  where  to  this  day  its  principles  have  with- 
stood all  the  corruptions  both  of  heathen  idola- 
try and  of  Muhammedan  intolerance,  the  literal 
"fruit  of  the  vine"  is  used  in  the  Lord's  Sup- 
per.    In  regions  where  the  grape  is  not  found, 


234  '^^^^  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

dried  grapes,  that  is,  raisins,  brought  from  afar, 
are  chopped,  soaked  in  water,  and  pressed  ;  and 
the  sweet  grape-juice  thus  obtained  is  used  in 
the  sacred  rite.  It  is  an  echo,  heard  yet  from 
Central  Africa,  of  the  voice  of  the  primitive 
days,  when  the  first  Ethiopian  convert  returned 
riding  in  his  chariot  from  Jerusalem ;  whose 
unmistakable  testimony  as  to  the  wine  which 
Christ  consecrated  has  thus  been  perpetuated. 

WINES    AMONG    THE    EARLY    REFORMERS. 

A  marked  feature  of  the  Reformation  was  the 
preparation  of  Bible  translations  in  the  modern 
tongues  of  Europe  ;  which,  like  the  Latin  trans- 
lations of  the  earlier  centuries,  were  designed 
to  give  to  the  people  of  every  language  the 
Scriptures  in  their  own  tongue.  These  transla- 
tions are  the  unmistakable  index  to  the  views 
of  that  age,  and  of  many  lands  in  that  age,  as 
to  the  wine  consecrated  by  Christ. 

In  Luther's  translation  the  Hebrew  tirosh  is 
rendered  in  Gen.  xxvii.  28,  31  "  wein ; "  but 
after  this,  as  Num.  xviii.  22,  and  onward  in  the 
history,  as  Judges  ix.  13,  and  also  in  Isa.  xxiv. 
7  ;  Ixv.  8,  and  other  passages  where  the  con- 
nection seemed  to  compel,  it  is  rendered 
"  most."  Here  is  a  clear  recognition  that  the 
Hebrew  tirosh  was  a  "wine ;  "  and,  at  the  same 
time,  but  an  "  unfermented  wine."     This  trans- 


Protestant  and  Catholic  Translators,    235 

lation  is  especially  noteworthy  as  occurring  in 
Hosea  iv.  11.  The  use  of  the  word  "most"  in 
this  passage  by  Luther,  aided  as  he  was  by  the 
best  scholarship  of  his  time,  is  an  index  to  the 
fact  that  the  German,  like  the  English  translators, 
did  not  regard  as  inconsistent  the  view  hereto- 
fore taken  of  the  Greek  term  metkusma,  and  of 
its  root  methe. 

In  the  New  Testament  allusion  to  "new  wine 
in  old  bottles"  (Mat.  ix.  17,  and  Luke  v.  ■^j'), 
Luther  also  uses  the  word  "most "  for  new  wine. 
The  word  gletikos,  in  the  English  expression, 
Acts  ii.  13,  "full  of  new  wine,"  is  rendered 
by  Luther  "  voll  sussen  weins."  The  expres- 
sion of  Christ  as  to'  the  wine  of  the  Passover 
andof  the  Supper  (Luke  xxii.  18;  Mat.  xxvi.  29), 
is  rendered  "  gewachse  des  weinstocks  ;  "  "or 
product  of  the  winestock  "  or  vine. 

In  his  religious  writings,  Luther  was  as  earnest 
as  any  modern  advocate  for  abstinence  as  tem- 
perance. Opposing  the  German  habit  of  beer- 
drinking,  in  his  rough  form  of  statement  he  said, 
that  the  German  people  were  possessed  by  the 
"  sauf-teufel "  or  tippling-devil.  Had  the  spirit  of 
Luther  prevailed,  and  the  plain  teaching  of  Ger- 
man lexicographers  been  pondered,  the  "  unfer- 
mented  wine,"  which  he  saw  in  the  cup  of  both 
the  ancient  Jewish  and  the  primitive  Church, 
would  now  be  sought  both  in  social  entertain- 


236  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines, 

ments  and  in  religious  ordinances.  For,  here  it 
must  be  recalled,  that  Luther  had  the  exhaustive 
scholarship  of  men  like  Castell,  in  his  Heptaglott 
Lexicon,  and  of  Cocceius  to  sustain  him,  as  had 
also  the  modern  German  Hebrew  lexicographers, 
Leopold  and  Fuerst. 

Amid  the  same  scholarship  the  Spanish  Re- 
former, De  Reyna,  performed  his  high  mission ; 
catching  the  same  new  light  to  guide  him  in  his 
Spanish  translation  published  a.d.  1569.  The 
Hebrew  "  tirosh "  De  Reyna  renders  by  the 
Spanish  "  vino "  where  specificness  is  not  re- 
quired ;  as  in  Neh.  x.  39  and  xiii.  5, 12 ;  Isa.  xxiv. 
7  ;  Hag.  i.  II ;  Zech.  ix.  17;  thus  showing  that 
he  regarded  it  as  true  winfe ;  but  he  renders  it 
"  mosto,"  or  unfermented  grape-juice,  Judg.  ix. 
13  ;  Isa.  Ixv.  8  ;  Joel  i.  10  ;  Micah  vi.  15.  Yet 
more,  in  Hosea  iv.  11,  he  renders  "tirosh"  by 
•'  mosto ; "  and,  most  instructive  of  all,  in  Gen. 
xxvii.  28,  I'],  he  has  both  "vino"  and  "  mosto." 
Again,  in  the  New  Testament,  De  Reyna  trans- 
lates the  words,  Matt.  xxvi.  29,  and  Luke  xxii. 
18,  by  "fruto  de  vid,"  and  "  gleukos  "  in  Acts  ii. 
13,  by  "  mosto  "  ;  a  fact  which  reveals,  again,  the 
prevailing  conviction,  as  well  as  the  scholarship 
of  the  Reformers. 

In  the  Italian  of  Diodati  the  "fruit  of  the 
vine  "  is  rendered  "  frutto  della  vigna,"  and  the 
"  gleukos  "  or  "  new  wine,"  is  rendered  "  vin  dolce." 


English  Bible  Translators  and  Wines.  22^7 

In  the  French  translation  of  the  Abbe  de  Sacy, 
of  the  Roman  Church,  the  rendering  of  "  fruit 
of  the  vine"  is  "fruit  de  la  vigne" ;  and  that  of 
new  wine  "  is  "  vin  doux."  In  the  Spanish  01 
De  San  Miguel,  also  of  the  Roman  Church,  the 
words  for  "  fruit  of  the  vine  "  are  "  fruto  de  vid." 
The  new  wine  or  gleukos  of  Acts  ii.  13,  in  this 
Spanish  translation  is  "  mosto." 

These  several  translations  made  at  the  same 
era,  two  by  adherents  of  the  Roman  Church  and 
two  by  its  opposers,  are  a  remarkably  significant 
testimony  to  the  view  which  prevailed  among  all 
Christian  scholars  at  that  era  of  the  special  re- 
vival of  thorough  study  of  the  inspired  originals 
of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments.  They  confirm 
at  every  point  the  fact  that  the  Hebrews  had  a 
wine  which  was  virtually  "  must  "  or  unfermented 
grape-juice ;  that  this  was  known  in  different 
lands  where  the  Gospel  ordinances  were  ob- 
served, from  the  apostles'  day  down  to  the  Ref- 
ormation. They  show  farther,  that  the  testi- 
mony of  modern  scholarship  as  to  the  wines  of 
the  Bible,  have  been  reached  through  a  history 
whose  uniform  facts  are  the  foundation  of  an 
absolute  and  scientific  demonstration. 

The  history  drawn  from  English  translations, 
inasmuch  as  it  extends  back  to  an  earlier  era 
and  embodies  the  revisions  of  many  generations, 
is  yet  more  decisive.      The  principal    English 


238  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

versions  of  the  Bible  are  those  of  Wickliffe, 
A.D.  1360;  Tyndale,  1532:  Coverdale,  1535; 
Matthews,  1537;  Taverner,  1539;  Cranmer, 
1540;  the  Genevan,  1560;  the  Bishops',  1568; 
and  that  of  James  I.,  161 1.  Of  these  nine  ver- 
sions, the  first,  that  of  Wickliffe,  was  made  about 
1 72  years  prior  to  any  other ;  and  it  remained 
unprinted  in  several  manuscript  copies  until 
published  late  in  the  present  century.  Wickliffe 
generally  renders  "  tirosh  "  by  wyne  ;  but  in  Neh. 
y>..  2il  ^'^d  Isa.  xxiv.  7,  he  uses  "  vindage,"  and  in 
Isa.  Ixv.  8  "grapes."  For  "gleukos,"  Acts  ii. 
13,  he  has  "must."  In  i  Cor.  xi.  21,  he  has 
"  drunken,"  which  some  of  his  copyists  explain  by 
"confounden  "  and  "  schamen,"  from  v.  22.  The 
next  five  were  associated  in  translation,  more  or 
less  directly.  Tyndale  has  "  new  wyne "  in 
Acts  ii.  13;  Coverdale  has  "  swete  wyne"Jud. 
ix.  13  and  Acts  ii.  13,  and  in  Isa.  Ixv.  8,  "holy 
grapes."  Matthews  has  "  holy  grapes,"  i.  e.  whole 
or  unpressed,  Isa.  Ixv.  8  ;  and  "  new  wyne  "  Acts 
ii.  13,  as  have  also  Taverner  and  Cranmer  The 
Genevan,  prepared  under  the  guidance  oi  Swiss 
scholarship,  for  the  first  time  follows  the  Hebrew 
in  Hosea  iv.  11,  rendering  "tirosh  "new  wine, 
whereas,  former  versions  from  Wickliffe  to  Cran- 
mer follow  the  Greek  and  Latin  version  ren- 
dering it  "  drunkennesse."  The  Bishops'  Bible, 
prepared  in   England,    but  with   new  influence 


Old  and  New  Testament  Wines.        239 

from  continental  scholarship,  has  "  new  wine  "  in 
Isa.  Ixv.  8,  Hosea  iv.  11,  and  Acts  ii.  13.  The 
version  of  King  James  renders  "  tirosh"  by  "  new 
wine,"  Neh.  x.  39 ;  xiii.  5,  12  ;  Prov.  iii.  10;  Isa, 
xxiv.  7  ;  Ixv.  8  ;  Hosea  iv.  1 1  ;  ix.  2  ;  Joel  i.  10 ; 
Hag.  i.  10  ;  Zech.  ix.  17  ;  and  by  "  sweet  wine," 
Micah  vi.  15  ;  while  "gleukos,"  Acts  ii.  13,  is  ren- 
dered "  sweet  wine."  These  renderings  recog- 
nized the  permanent  conviction  that  the  Hebrew 
"  tirosh  "  and  the  Greek  "  gleukos  "  were  wines, 
and  yet  un fermented  grape-juice. 

It  should  be  added  here  that  Walton's  Poly- 
glott,  published  at  London,  1657,  in  the  interlin- 
ear translation  of  the  Hebrew,  has  the  Latin 
"  mustum  "  for  "  tirosh."  The  master-work  of 
Poole,  in  his  "Synopsis  Criticorum,"  published 
in  1673,  is  in  accord;  "tirosh"  being  rendered 
"  mustum  "  even  in  Hosea  iv.  11. 

That  the  same  questions  now  discussed,  as  to 
the  nature  of  the  wines  referred  to  in  the  Old 
and  New  Testaments,  and  as  to  the  effects  of 
wines,  were  made  a  thorough  study  by  the  lead- 
ing Reformers  is  indicated  frequently  in  other 
records  than  their  Old  and  New  Testament  trans- 
lations. The  comments  of  Cocceius  (on  John 
ii.  10),  already  quoted,  are  but  specimens  of 
critical  notes  on  Old  and  New  Testament  wines. 
Those  comments  show  that  not  only  the  "  tir- 
osh "  of  the  Old  Testament,  but  also  the  wine 


240         The  Divine  Latv  as  to  Wines, 

made  by  Christ  at  the  wedding,  and  the  wine  of 
the  Passover  and  of  the  Lord's  Supper  were,  by 
the  scholarship  of  the  Reformers,  declared  to  be 
the  Latin  "  mustum,"  the  German  "  most,"  the 
English  "  new  "  or  unfermented  wine. 

WINE    FOR   THE    SUPPER    IN    REMOTE    MISSION 
FIELDS. 

The  extension  of  Christianity  to  remote  re- 
gions, in  some  of  which  the  vine  is  not  known, 
and  where,  moreover,  wine  is  not  furnished  by 
importation,  has  revived  in  our  day  the  same 
practical  question  which  arose  at  different  ages 
in  both  the  Eastern  and  Western  Churches ;  a 
question  that  in  all  ages  has  been  met  by  the 
practical  good  sense  which  Christian  men  of 
clear  intelligence  will  always  exhibit.  Reason 
finds  that  three  facts  have  conspired  to  relieve 
the  difficulty  some  have  conceived  might  arise 
from  the  impossibility  of  always  obtaining  the 
'  fruit  of  the  vine  "  for  use  at  the  Lord's  Supper. 

First. — The  difficulty  is  the  less  when  it  is 
understood  that  it  was  the  simple  "  fruit  of  the 
vine,"  not  a  carefully  prepared  artificial  wine,  re- 
quiring length  of  days  and  skillful  arrest  of  fer- 
mentation at  a  certain  stage,  which  was  to  serve 
as  the  element  employed  by  Christ.  The  dried 
grape  can  be  carried  to  any  region,  and  from  it, 
as  now  by  all  American  Israelites  at  their  Pass- 


Communion  Wine  in  Mission  Fields.   241 

over,  the  "  fruit  of  the  vine,"  substantially  that 
used  by  Christ  at  both  the  Passover  and  the  Sup- 
per, can  be  supplied.  This,  as  we  have  seen,  has 
often  been  sanctioned  in  former  ages  of  the 
Church. 

Second. — "  The  fruit  of  the  vine  "  was  specially 
employed  by  Christ  without  question,  because 
the  grape  was  the  common  fruit  of  the  land  of 
His  abode.  Hence,  in  the  Roman  and  Greek 
Churches,  it  has  been  decided  by  men  of  the 
highest  wisdom  and  piety — men  who  had  reached 
that  eminence  because  of  superior  intellectual 
and  moral  worth — that  in  the  case  of  emer- 
gency, where  the  product  of  the  vine  could  not 
be  obtained,  the  juice  of  any  other  fruit,  as 
that  of  the  apple,  is  within  the  direct  scope  of 
the  Divine  requirement.  Indeed,  by  order  of 
Roman  pontiffs,  it  has  been  allowed  that  where 
the  fruit  of  the  vine  can  not  be  obtained,  even 
milk  which,  indirectly,  is  the  product  of  vege- 
table juices,  may  be  employed.  Distinction  has, 
at  the  same  time,  been  always  made  between  the 
occasional  "  necessity  "  which  "  knows  no  law  " 
and  the  extreme  view  of  ascetics,  that  at  any  lo- 
cation, and  under  any  circumstances,  any  other 
liquor  than  wine  meets  the  requirements  of 
Christ's  appointed  ordinance.  A  long  succes- 
sion of  cases  in  point  could  be  cited  to  illustrate 
this  familiar  occurrence  in  Christian  history. 


242  The  Divhie  Law  as  to  Wines. 

Any  one  disposed  to  trace  this  entire  history, 
may  find  the  materials  in  the  citations  of  Bing- 
ham (Orig.  Eccles.),  of  Bolandus  (Act.  Sanct.), 
and  in  the  references  found  in  the  Notes  of 
Giesler  (Eccles.  Hist.)  to  original  documents. 
The  very  prohibitions  found  in  the  reported  can- 
ons of  such  Councils  as  those  of  Braga,  and  of 
Auxerre,  show  that  the  use  of  milk,  of  syrup  and 
water,  etc.,  had,  in  necessity,  been  temporarily 
allowed ;  and  that  the  decisions  of  Councils 
only  required  a  return  to  the  use  of  "  the  fruit  of 
the  vine  "  when  it  could  be  obtained.  The  cases 
often  occurring  in  the  work  of  modem  American 
and  English  missionaries  in  Asia  and  Africa,  are 
in  the  line  of  this  succession. 

Third, — The  spread  of  modern  missions,  in 
which  all  the  appliances  of  translating,  printing 
and  distributing  the  inspired  scriptures  have 
been  employed,  has  d\\N2.ys  follozved,  rather  than 
preceded  the  openings  made  by  commercial 
intercourse.  Hence  the  necessity  for  resort  to 
the  use  of  anything  else  than  the  fruit  of  the 
vine,  easily  and  almost  everywhere  provided 
by  the  importation  of  the  dried  fruit,  has  been 
obviated.  More  than  this.  Few  countries  have 
been  found,  so  numerous  are  the  varieties  of 
the  grape,  and  so  hardy  are  many  of  those 
varieties,  where  the  grape-vine  has  not  been 


American  Study  of  Bible  Wines.       243 

found,  or  where  it  has  not  been  early  introduced 
by  immigrants. 

The  history  of  America  is  in  point.  In  its 
earliest  colonies,  the  fruit  of  the  vine,  either  in 
imported  wines  or  raisins,  was  seldom  wanting ; 
in  the  rare  exceptions  which  required  it,  relig- 
ious wisdom  found  a  ready  substitute ;  while 
very  soon  the  native  and  imported  grape  be- 
came an  abundant  product.  Any  careful  stu- 
dent of  the  successive  authorities  above  cited, 
if  he  has  not  been  himself  an  independent 
explorer  in  the  folios  of  universal  Christian 
literature,  will  see  how  in  every  age  the  Chris- 
tian Church  has  been  called  to  record  like  ex- 
periences occurring  in  remote  regions  where 
Christians  have  been  called  to  observe  the 
Lord's  Supper  without  wine. 

AMERICAN    STUDY    OF    BIBLE    WINES. 

It  was  natural  that  reform  and  a  return  to 
early  Roman  and  Christian  views  as  to  the  evils 
of  intoxicating  drinks,  and  to  efforts  for  their 
arrest,  should  begin  in  the  United  States  of 
America.  Those  evils  were  perpetuated,  not 
from  intelligent  purpose,  but  from  the  blinding 
and  enslaving  influence  of  custom  or  fashion. 

The  American  people,  in  beginning  their  new 
national  existence,  had  been  compelled  to  re 


244  1^^^  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

solve  back  Society  into  its  primitive  simplicity 
of  life.  Hence,  in  organizing  new  communities 
and  Churches,  they  were  led  to  seek  for  "  the 
laws  of  nature,"  not  of  mere  custom,  in  framing 
their  political  constitutions  and  civil  laws,  and 
in  forming  their  social,  moral  and  religious  con- 
victions and  customs.  Just  so  far,  therefore,  as 
the  drinking  of  beverages,  more  or  less  intoxi- 
cating, has  been  pressed  on  their  consideration 
as  an  evil,  they  have  been  prepared  to  examine 
and  act  upon  the  issue  ;  no  thralldom  of  custom 
shackling  their  free  purpose.  Old  Roman 
virtue  and  primitive  Christian  purity,  found 
ready  audience,  when  they  rose  again,  in  a  new 
land  to  utter  their  voices. 

During  the  last  fifty  years,  from  the  time  of 
the  awakening  of  thought  first  in  America,  and 
then  in  England,  to  temperance  reform,  a  large 
class  of  writers  have  been  called  out  on  differ- 
ent departments  of  the  general  subject  of  intox- 
icating drinks  ;  that  of  Bible  Wines  becoming 
prominent.  As  was  to  be  expected,  different 
views  have  been  expressed ;  and  that  for  three 
reasons. 

When  any  change  in  popular  customs  is  pro- 
posed, the  suggestion  for  reform  implies,  first, 
that  the  common  opinion  is  erroneous  ;  second, 
that  interests  involved  are  imperiled ;  and, 
third,  that  conduct  before  unchallenged  is  cen- 


Nott  and  Stuart  and  their  Opposers.    245 

sured.  This  three-fold  difficulty  is  to  be  met 
and  overcome  ;  pride  of  intellectual  oversight ; 
sacrifice  of  personal  interest ;  and  admission  of 
faults  in  practice.  It  is  easy  to  make,  in  gener- 
al, the  admission  that  no  mind  can  have  taken 
in  the  whole  field  of  truth ;  that  no  man  is 
wholly  free  from  the  promptings  of  self-interest ; 
and  that  no  human  being  was  ever  perfect  in 
life.  It  is  hard,  however,  to  bring  one's  self  up 
to  the  point  where  without  prejudice,  selfishness 
or  preference,  the  rule  of  newly-discovered 
truth,  duty  and  Christian  humility  can  be  made 
dominant.  If  this  be  hard  to  attain  in  minds 
specially  thoughtful  and  conscientious,  it  is  yet 
harder  to  bring  a  community,  or  an  age,  up  to 
the  full  spirit  of  reform.  There  has  never  been 
a  great  reform  in  social  habits,  in  politics,  in 
morals,  or  in  religion,  that  has  not  required  many 
generations  to  make  the  new  view  and  new  life 
thorough  and  pervasive. 

In  the  very  opening  of  the  American  Tem- 
perance reform,  such  men  as  the  practical  Dr. 
Eliphalet  Nott,  President  of  Union  College, 
Schenectady,  N  Y.,  and  Prof.  Moses  Stuart, 
of  Andover  Theological  Seminary,  Massachu- 
setts, took  their  stand  as  scholars  with  the  re- 
formers. Dr.  Nott  in  his  "  Lectures  on  Bible 
Temperance,"  led  the  way  in  tracing  the  his- 
tory of  opinions  as  to  intoxicating  liquors ;  while 


246         The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines, 

Prof.  Stuart  started  inquiries  as  to  Biblical  in- 
terpretation which  have  prompted  and  guided 
subsequent  inquiries.  Taking  but  a  limited 
range  into  his  survey,  Stuart  affirms  as  his 
"final  conclusion,"  that,  whenever  the  Scrip- 
tures commend  directly  or  indirectly  the  use  of 
wine  it  is  "  only  such  wine  as  contained  no 
alcohol,  that  could  have  a  mischievous  tend- 
ency ;  "  that  to  suppose  the  contrary  intimates 
that  God's  "  word  and  works  are  at  variance  ;  " 
while,  moreover,  "  facts  show  that  the  ancients 
not  only  preserved  wine  unfermented,  but  re- 
garded it  as  of  a  higher  flavor  and  finer  quality 
than  fermented  wine." 

A  new  stage  in  the  progress  of  the  American 
reform  began  about  1840.  Many  Biblical 
scholars,  especially  those  educated  in  Germany, 
began  to  dissent  from  the  views  advocated  by 
Dr.  Nott,  Prof.  Stuart  and  their  companions ; 
and  the  following  causes  prompted  this  dissent : 
First,  many  good  men  became  severe  in  con- 
demning Christian  teachers  and  church-mem- 
bers who  did  not  accord  with  their  views,  or 
rather  with  the  reasoning  by  which  they  main- 
tained them.  Sec<:)nd,  special  assaults  were 
made  by  earnest  Temperance  advocates  on  the 
Christian  Church ;  many  of  whose  ministers 
maintained  that  the  teaching  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment and  the  example  of  Christ,  favored  the 


Missionary    Testimony.  247 

use  of  wines.  Third,  not  only  the  habits,  but 
the  scholarship  of  Germany,  the  resort  of 
advanced  American  philologists,  were  indirectly 
opposed  to  the  American  reform ;  and  many, 
whose  education  or  studies  in  Bible  literature 
were  drawn  from  Germany,  both  by  precept 
and  example  dissented  from  the  leaders  in  that 
reform. 

Prompted  by  this  spirit  of  sincere  opposition, 
Missionaries  of  the  American  Board  in  the 
East  were  called  on  to  make  investigations  and 
specially  report  on  the  wines  of  the  East.  Chief, 
and  first  among  these  reporters,  was  Rev.  Eli 
Smith,  who  in  \'^t^']-%  had  accompanied  Dr. 
Robinson  in  his  explorations  ;  who,  in  an  article 
published  in  the  Bibliotheca  Sacra  for  Novem- 
ber, 1846,  gave  the  result  of  his  inquiries. 
Among  others  he  makes  the  following  state- 
ments. As  to  the  field  of  his  inquiry,  he  says : 
"  My  information  is  derived  from  seven  districts 
of  Mount  Lebanon,  extending  from  Tripoli  to 
Sidon."  As  to  the  artificial  products  of  the 
grape  met,  he  mentions  three ;  first,  simple  fer- 
mented grape-juice  ;  second,  juice  boiled  before 
fermentation ;  third,  sweet  wine  from  grapes 
partially  dried  in  the  sun  before  pressing.  No 
custom  of  purifying  the  juice,  by  straining  or 
arresting  fermentation,  was  found  "  practiced  by 
natives."  Of  the  wine  used  by  Jews  of  Pales- 
% 


248  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

tine,  in  the  Passover  week,  he  makes  this  single 
note  :  "  In  1835,  I  called  on  the  Chief  Rabbi  of 
the  Spanish  Jews  in  Hebron,  during  the  feast, 
and  was  treated  with  unleavened  bread  and 
wine."  When  asked  how  this  was  consistent 
with  abstinence  from  all  ferment,  the  Rabbi  re- 
plied that  "  the  vinous  ferment  had  passed,  and 
no  sign  of  acetous  ferment  had  appeared  ;  other- 
wise it  would  be  rejected."  From  Roman  and 
Greek  priests,  inquired  of  as  to  the  wine  used 
in  their  Sacraments,  Mr.  Smith  heard  the  com- 
mon statement  that  "  unfermented  wine  would 
not  answer ;  nor  wine  if  acetous  fermentation 
be  commenced."  In  general,  he  says  :  "  I  have 
not  been  able  to  hear  of  unintoxicating,  or  un- 
fermented wines." 

Every  thoughtful  reader  must  believe  Rev, 
Mr.  Smith  a  sincere  reporter ;  but  he  will  note 
these  facts.  He  was,  as  when  he  accompanied 
Dr.  Robinson,  an  observer,  but  not  a  scholar; 
for  the  customs  of  the  simple  "  natives  "  of  Mt. 
Lebanon  are  entirely  unlike  those  of  the  cult- 
ured Jews,  Greeks  and  Romans,  who  supplied 
products  of  the  grape  in  Christ's  day.  Again, 
the  field  explored  is  as  different  from  Southern 
Palestine,  in  its  wines,  as  are  the  Rhine  lands 
from  Southern  Italy.  At  the  single  passover 
feast  observed  at  Jerusalem,  Mr.  Smith's  natu- 
ral conviction  suggested  that  fermented  wine 


Rev.  Messrs.  Smith  and  Homes.        249 

was  opposed  to  the  Mosaic  Law ;  it  was  a 
Spanish  Jew  who  was  acting  in  violation,  as  he 
reasonably  supposed,  of  that  law ;  and  as  we 
have  abundantly  seen  in  the  history  cited,  a 
Spanish  Jew  in  Hebron,  and  Roman  and  Greek 
priests  in  Palestine,  are  certainly  not  represen- 
tatives of  the  great  nationalities  whose  history 
and  present  customs  we  have  traced.  Yet, 
more;  the  Jewish  Rabbi  contended  that  the 
wine  he  drank  was  witkotit  ferfnent,  because 
one  stage  had  passed  and  the  other  was  not 
begun  ;  and  the  Greek  priests  presented  the 
same  view.  It  was  then  unfermented  wine, 
which  Jew  and  Greek  sought  for  their  sacred 
rites  ;  and,  the  question  whether  they  mistook  in 
seeking  such  wine  is  the  point  at  issue. 

The  extremely  limited  survey,  aside  from  the 
want  of  historic  comparison,  and  especially  the 
lack  of  logical  reasoning  in  this  report  of  Rev. 
Mr.  Smith,  is  seen  in  the  report  of  the  second 
witness  called  to  confirm  the  conclusions 
soufifht.  In  an  article  on  "  Produce  of  Vine- 
yards  in  the  East,"  furnished  for  the  Bibliotheca 
Sacra  of  May,  1848,  Rev.  Henry  Homes,  Mis- 
sionary at  Constantinople,  reports  no  less  than 
twelve  artificial  products  of  the  grape  found  in 
the  vicinity  of  Constantinople ;  in  place  of  the 
"  three"  reported  by  Rev.  Mr.  Smith  from  the 
•'  natives  of  Mt.  Lebanon."  Among  these 
II* 


250         The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

twelve,  three  may  be  noted  as  specimens.  The 
fifth  is  "  preserves  made  with  fresh  grape 
juice ;  "  in  whose  preparation,  Mr.  fiomes  says, 
the  manufacturers  "  check  the  tendency  to  fer- 
ment by  throwing  in  calcareous  earths  ;  "  a 
statement,  certainly  recalling  Pliny's  notes 
gathered  from  this  and  other  regions.  The 
ninth  is  "  boiled  must  reduced  to  one-fourth 
its  bulk"  by  a  boiling  for  "four  or  five  hours." 
Of  the  beverage  thus  obtained,  called  "  nar- 
denk,"  Mr.  Homes,  says :  "  It  ordinarily  has 
not  a  particle  of  intoxicating  quality ;  "  to  which 
he  adds,  "  if  not  sufficiently  boiled  it  may  fer- 
ment." Here,  again,  is  met  both  the  "must" 
and  the  "  boiled  wines "  of  Grecian  and  Ro- 
man history.  Though  a  young  man,  with  lim- 
ited study  of  authorities,  Mr.  Homes  remarks  of 
this  beverage :  "  It  seems  to  correspond  with 
the  recipes  and  description  of  certain  drinks 
included  by  some  of  the  ancients  among  wines." 
The  twelfth  is,  "  Rais'n-drink  ;  "  prepared  as  a 
"  domestic  drink,"  and  used  in  large  quantities, 
obtained  by  boiling  the  raisins,  or  dried 
grapes,  for  two  or  three  hours  ;  called  by  the 
Turks,  "  sherbet." 

No  one  can  read  Mr.  Homes'  statement  after 
the  historic  survey  above  presented,  without 
remarking:  First,  the  conclusions  of  any  ob- 
server ought  to  be,  and  will,  by  scientific  readers, 


Testimony  of  Wayland  and  Lewis,     251 

be  limited  to  that  observer's  range  of  investi- 
gation ;  and  that,  whether  his  observations  be 
personal,  on  the  field,  or  collective,  i.  e.,  derived 
from  all  historic  fields.  Second,  no  comprehen- 
sive and  demonstrative  conclusion  is  attainable 
except  by  harmonizing  the  valuable  observa- 
tions of  all  sincere  and  intelligent  men  gathered 
from  every  field  and  from  every  age.  All  un- 
conscionsly,  Mr.  Homes'  statements  are  in  en- 
tire harmony  with  all  history. 

Another  era  began  when  American  youth  in 
college,  statesmen  in  halls  of  legislation,  officers 
in  the  army,  and  even  esteemed  clergymen,  be- 
gan in  theory  and  example  to  sow  broadcast 
the  seeds  of  another  degeneracy.  Among  edu- 
cators, such  men  as  President  Wayland  of 
Brown  University,  and  Professor  Tayler  Lewis, 
led  the  way  to  a  new  position.  Dr.  Wayland, 
eminently  conscientious  and  practical  as  a 
teacher  of  Moral  Science,  when  told  by  Chris- 
tian gentlemen  whom  he  esteemed  that  his  ex- 
ample in  providing  wine-sangaree  at  his  annual 
receptions  was  misleading  and  betraying  to 
their  ruin,  young  men  in  fashionable  society. 
Dr.  Wayland  promptly  said :  "  If  my  wine 
makes  my  brother  to  offend,  I  will  have  no  more 
of  it."  Prof.  Lewis,  scholarly  and  logical,  re- 
versed his  opinions  and  practice,  when  he  per- 
ceived, as    he    himself  states    it,  that  "  on    the 


252  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

subject  of  Temperance  there  has  been  com- 
mitted the  same  error  of  interpretation  that  for 
so  long  a  time  confused  the  slavery  question." 

To  these  testimonies  was  soon  added  that  of 
Professor  Geo.  Bush  ;  who,  when  first  appealed 
to,  quoted  Old  and  New  Testament  declara- 
tions to  sustain  the  custom  of  using  intoxicating 
wines  in  fashionable  society  and  in  Christian 
rites  ;  but  who,  when  asked,  resolved  to  examine 
the  original  Hebrew  and  Greek  Scriptures,  and 
then,  after  examination,  confessed  the  error  into 
which  neglect  of  thorough  investigation  had  led 
him,  and  declared  to  the  advocates  of  total  ab- 
stinence :  "  You  have  the  whole  ground ;  and 
in  time  the  whole  Christian  world  will  be 
obliged  to  adopt  your  views."  The  New  York 
Observer,  of  August,  1869,  adds  to  this  testi- 
mony. 

ENGLISH    STUDY    OF    BIBLE   WINES. 

Though  behind  the  young  spirit  of  America, 
where  some  of  the  most  progressive  representa- 
tives of  all  European  nationalities  have  for  a  cen- 
tury been  gathering,  the  power  of  truth  and  duty 
is  moving  upon  all  Western  Europe.  And  here 
it  should  be  noted,  in  order  that  prejudice  be  re- 
moved, that  "  reform "  in  Western  Europe  on 
each  and  all  modern  questions,  implies  simply 
the  answer  to  this  demand :   "  Shall  the  earlier 


English  Study  of  Bible  Wines.        253 

and  purer,  or  the  later  and  perverted  spirit  of  our 
Church  and  people  prevail  ? "  Everywhere 
therefore,  thoughtful  minds  are  yearning  fol 
"  the  old  ways "  which  were  trod  when  the 
usurpers  of  the  present  day  were  unknown  to 
history.  The  reflex  of  American  thought  and 
practice,  or  rather  the  return  to  better  days  and 
ways,  has  naturally  been  first  witnessed  in  the 
land  whose  blood,  laws  and  language  are  the 
chief  national  inheritance  of  Americans. 

As  a  leading  modern  English  writer  on  Bible 
Wines,  Peter  Meams,  of  Leeds,  England,  is  a 
worthy  pioneer.  His  treatises  on  "  tirosh  "  and 
other  Hebrew  products  of  the  vine,  and  on  the 
wine  of  the  "Jewish  Passover  and  Christian  Eu- 
charist," show  an  intelligent  and  earnest  search 
for  the  truth  in  the  inspired  Scriptures.  Next 
to  the  works  of  Meams,  and  prominent  before 
all  others,  come  the  numerous  writings  of  Dr.  F. 
R.  Lees.  His  "  Temperance  Bible  Comment- 
ary "  is  replete  with  scholarly  research,  and  intel- 
ligent conclusions.  The  disadvantage  necessary 
to  a  commentary,  which  can  not  give  chronolog- 
ical or  logical  connection  and  consistency,  has 
subjected  it  to  minor  criticisms,  which  have 
been  met  by  special  treatises  and  personal  re- 
plies. His  "  Wines,  Ancient  and  Modern,"  and 
his  "Text-Book  of  Temperance,"  are  of  historic 
and  statistical  value ;  while  his  occasional  tracts 


254  ^-^^  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

in  reply  to  critics  are  scholarly,  thougli  perhaps, 
from  necessity,  they  are  sometimes  caustic.  With 
Dr.  Lees  is  associated  Rev.  D.  Burns,  whose  fin- 
ished style  in  his  "  Christendom  and  the  Drink 
Curse,"  gives  point  to  the  researches  of  Dr.  Lees, 
in  whose  main  work  Dr.  Burns  had  a  share. 
The  treatises  of  Rev.  Wm.  Reid,  of  Edinburgh, 
on  the  "  Communion  Wine  Question,"  and  of 
several  other  Scotch  and  English  writers,  indi- 
cate the  strong  sweep  of  Christian  sentiment 
awakened  in  the  English  and  Scotch  Churches, 
and  a  return  to  look  for  the  truth,  clear  though 
covered,  in  the  Old  and  New  Testament  Scrip- 
tures. 

When  these  utterances  demanded  a  scrutiny 
of  social  customs,  and  of  Church  usages,  and 
were  in  some  measure,  perhaps,  extreme,  and  cer- 
tainly in  advance  of  the  spirit  of  the  age,  a  series 
of  opposing  writers  appeared.  The  reactionary 
party  prepared  themselves,  as  did  the  American 
scholars  of  thirty  years  before,  by  bringing  into 
service  the  reports  of  missionaries  in  foreigA 
lands.  Rev.  J.  Chalmers,  missionary  among  a 
rude  people,  had  written:  "The  bread  used  at 
the  Communion  was  the  inner  growth  of  the  old 
cocoa-nut,  cooked  in  the  native  oven  ;  the  wine 
was  the  water  of  the  new  cocoa-nut."  Rev. 
Wm.  Wright,  a  Scotch  missionary  returned  from 
Damascus,  had  alluded  at  a  meeting  of  the  Gen- 


Testimony  of  English  Missionaries.    255 

eral  Assembly  in  Scotland,  held  June,  1875,  to  a 
distinction  between  chamer,  intoxicating  wine^ 
and  sherbets  as  unintoxicating  wines ;  which  dis- 
tinction, as  we  have  seen,  the  general  Arabic 
Lexicon  of  Freytag  and  local  Arabic  vocabula- 
ries confirm.  The  venerable  Dr.  Duff,  of  India, 
had  also  publicly  made  this  statement :  "  In 
vine-bearing  districts  the  peasant  has  a  basin  of 
pure  unadulterated  blood  of  the  grape  in  its 
native  state,  not  an  intoxicating,  but  a  nutritive 
beverage."  In  the  earlier  ages  of  the  Church 
of  Christ,  devoted  missionaries  of  the  Divine 
Master  would  hardly  have  been  denounced  for 
heresy  in  thus  stating  what  their  eyes  had  seen, 
and  their  conviction  as  to  the  spirit  of  their  com- 
mission had  prompted  under  necessity  in  their 
practice.  All  history,  as  we  have  seen,  would 
have  confirmed  the  facts  stated,  and  have  justi- 
fied the  exceptional  practice.  But  these  utter- 
ances were  made  in  a  land  and  at  a  day  of  special 
controversy  as  to  the  wines  to  be  used  at  the 
Lord's  Supper.  Letters  were  sent  to  mission- 
aries in  Syria  asking  for  statements  confirmatory 
of  the  partial  testimony,  true  in  his  field,  made 
thirty  years  before,  under  similar  circumstances, 
by  Rev.  Eli  Smith  ;  which  partial  testimony  was, 
as  we  have  seen,  overshadowed  two  years  later, 
by  the  fuller  examination,  in  another  field,  made 
by  Rev.  Mr.  Homes,  at  Constantinople.      The 


256  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

following  card  was  thus  obtained,  signed  by  eight 
American  and  English  residents,  and  by  two  na- 
tives in  Syria :  "  We,  the  undersigned,  missionaries 
and  residents  in  Syria,  having  been  repeatedly 
requested  to  make  a  distinct  statement  on -the 
subject,  hereby  declare  that  during  the  whole 
time  of  our  residence  and  traveling  in  Syria  and 
the  Holy  Land,  we  have  never  seen  nor  heard  of 
an  unfermented  wine  ;  nor  have  we  found  among 
Jews,  Christians  or  Muhammedans  any  tradi- 
tion of  such  a  wine  having  ever  existed  in  the 
country." 

An  impartial  review  of  this  paper  calls  atten- 
tion to  the  following  facts  :  First,  it  was  a  pre- 
judged and  formulated  statement,  prepared  in 
Scotland  by  interested  parties,  and  sent  to  Syria 
for  ex  parte  testimony.  Second,  it  was  sent  to 
the  very  region,  the  Lebanon  district,  where 
Rev.  Mr.  Smith's  thorough  investigation  re- 
vealed so  few  facts  on  which  residents  could 
form  a  judgment.  Third,  the  traditional  records 
of  the  ignorant  Muhammedans  as  to  ancient 
customs  of  Romans  and  Christians  in  Palestine, 
were  as  defective  as  was  their  knowledge  of 
Arabic  literature,  whose  testimony  we  have 
already  traced.  Fourth,  the  Christian  people  of 
the  Lebanon  district  were  as  ignorant  of  the 
Greek  and  Roman  Christian  Fathers  as  were 
the  Muhammedans  of  Arabic  literature.     Fifth, 


Rev.  Dr.  Laurie  on  Syrian  Wines.     257 

the  Jews  of  the  same  region  were  ignorant,  as 
are  the  Jewish  people  generally,  of  the  Talmud 
and  other  Hebrew  records,  read  only  by  chief 
Rabbis ;  while  the  traditional  customs,  now  ob- 
served by  intelligent  Israelites  from  Bagdad  on 
the  Euphrates  to  New  York  on  the  Hudson, 
were  naturally  lost  to  the  Palestine  Jews,  princi- 
pally Spanish ;  as  they  were  unobserved  when 
Maimonides  wrote. 

In  the  Bibliotheca  Sacra  of  Jan.,  1869,  is  an 
article  from  Rev.  T.  Laurie,  D.D.,  a  former  mis- 
sionary in  Syria,  entitled  "What  Wine  shall 
we  use  at  the  Lord's  Supper?"  The  author 
quotes  Dr.  J.  Perkins,  who  mentions  three  pro- 
ducts of  the  grape  used  in  Persia :  first,  the  fresh 
juice  drunk  as  our  new  cider ;  second,  the  juice 
boiled  to  a  syrup ;  third,  distilled  fermented  wine 
called  "arak,"  or  Asiatic  brandy.  He  quotes 
Rev.  B.  Larabee,  seven  years  a  missionary 
among  the  Nestorians,  who  had  not  learned  of 
unintoxicating  wine ;  and  he  cites  the  Syriac 
term  "  chamor,"  written  "  hamrah,"  as  the  name 
for  all  wines ;  the  verb  "  chemar "  meaning,  to 
intoxicate.  He  quotes  Rev.  E.  Smith,  already 
noticed,  and  Dr.  C.  V.  A.  Van  Dyck,  for  twenty- 
five  years  a  missionary  in  Syria,  as  stating  that 
'•nothing  called  nebid  or  khemer  (chemer)  is 
unfermented."  He  states,  from  his  own  observa- 
tion and  study,  the  following ;    "In  Syria,  and 


258  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

as  far  as  I  can  learn,  in  all  the  East,  there  is  no 
wine  preserved  unfermented,  and  they  never 
make  wine  of  raisins ;  but  they  do  make  dibs,  or 
molasses,  of  raisins,  and  they  ferment  them  and 
make  arak  of  them  by  distillation ;  but  they 
could  not  keep  grape-juice  or  raisin-water  unfer- 
mented ;  it  would  become  either  wine  or  vinegar 
in  a  few  days,  or  go  into  the  putrefactive  fer- 
ment." He  adds :  "  The  native  Evangelical 
Churches,  also  the  Maronite,  Greek,  Coptic  and 
Armenian  all  use  fermented  wine  at  the  Com- 
munion. They  have  no  other;  and  have  no  idea 
of  any  other."  Again,  he  states  :  "  The  Jews 
not  only  use  fermented  wine  at  their  feasts,  but 
use  it  to  great  excess,  especially  at  the  Feast  of 
Purim.  At  the  Passover  only  fermented  wine  is 
used."  Quoting  again  Dr.  Van  Dyck,  he  says  : 
"  As  the  result  of  extensive  and  protracted  in- 
quiry, he  is  decided  in  the  opinion  that  such  a 
thing  as  unfermented  wine  was  never  known  in 
Syria."  In  reviewing  the  products  of  the  grape 
he  quotes  Gesenius'  derivation  of  "  tirosh,"  but 
not  his  definitions ;  which  are  inconsistent,  as  we 
have  seen,  with  his  derivation. 

No  one  who  knows  Dr.  Laurie,  can  help  es- 
teeming his  piety  and  sincerity.  It  will  at  once 
occur  to  his  readers  that  the  few  Persian  products 
of  the  grape,  like  Rev.  E.  Smith's  statement 
thirteen  years  before  as  to  Syria,  show  the  same 


Literacy  Genius  and  Wines.  259 

degeneracy  in  the  arts ;  that  the  Syriac  language 
and  customs  now  existing  are  to  be  compared 
with  the  earlier  day  of  the  Syriac  translation ;  that 
the  customs  of  the  degenerate  Spanish  Jews  and 
Oriental  Churches  are  in  perfect  harmony  with 
the  survey  taken  in  this  historic  treatise ;  and  es- 
pecially that  the  "  opinion  "  as  to  the  past  and 
primitive  customs  of  the  Church  planted  by  the 
apostles  in  Syria,  has  been  formed  without 
knowledge  of  the  historic  facts,  which  have  been 
so  overlooked  since  the  era  of  the  Reformation. 
It  was  natural  that  this  paper,  of  such  a  character 
and  so  obtained,  should  be  noticed  by  the  three 
professors  of  the  College  at  Belfast,  Ireland,  in 
1875,  under  the  title  "  Yayin,  or  the  Bible  Wine 
Question." 

Subsequently  to  this,  in  1877,  Rev.  ^.  M. 
Wilson,  of  London,  wrote  a  volume  on  "  The 
Wines  of  the  Bible,"  designed  to  refute  the 
"  Unfermented  Wine  Theory."  It  is  stored 
with  unarranged  quotations  from  authors  cited 
in  this  volume,  and  indicates  great  patience 
not  only  in  gathering  from  other  collators,  but 
also,  in  personal  translation.  It  lacks,  however, 
the  three  unities,  of  time,  place  and  logical  con- 
nection ;  and  its  citations  are  so  confused,  and 
often  contradictory  in  sentiment,  as  any  schol- 
arly student  will  on  every  page  observe,  that 
the  ordinary  reader  can  form  no  opinion  as  to 


26o         The  Divine  Law  as  to  Winzes. 

the  point  at  issue.  Most  of  all,  it  entirely  omits 
the  citations  from  Hebrew,  Greek,  Roman  and 
early  Christian  authors,  which  demonstrate  the 
existence  and  careful  use  of  unfermented  wine, 
and  the  avoidance  of  fermented  wine  in  relig- 
ious rites,  so  g-enerally  recognized  in  human 
history.  The  writer's  favorite  author  is  Athe- 
nseus  ;  and  he,  certainly,  is  like  that  busy  Greek, 
an  untiring  and  learned  gatherer ;  quite  in  con- 
trast, however,  to  the  practical  Pliny  ;  who,  in 
the  century  succeeding  Christ's  Apostles,  and 
preceding  Athenaeus,  had  recognized  principles 
in  his  study  of  wines  far  in  advance  of  modern 
Christian  attainment. 

LITERARY     GENIUS     EXEMPLIFYING     THE     LAW    OF 
WINES. 

The  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans  regarded 
poets  as  prophets.  Paul,  the  Christian  apostle, 
recognized  the  force,  if  not  the  full  truth  of  this 
impression,  when  he  appealed  to  the  Greek  »■ 
poets  as  the  specially  inspired  teachers  of  truth 
in  natural  religion  ;  calling  them,  in  his  address 
to  the  cultured  Athenian  Senate  (Acts  xvii.  28), 
by  the  name  "  poets  "  or  creators,  and  in  writ- 
ing to  the  head  of  the  Christian  Church, 
among  the  rude  Cretans  (Tit.  i.  12),  giving 
them  the  title  of  "  prophets,"  or  inspired 
teachers.     As  there  have  been  inconsistent  in- 


Epic  Poets  and  Wines.  261 

terpreters  of  the  revealed  law  of  God,  men  con- 
trolled now  by  the  "law  of  the  mind"  and  now 
by  the  "  law  in  the  members,"  so  it  has  been 
among  men  of  true  literary  genius,  the  special 
moral  guides  of  nations  and  ages. 

Little  do  the  admirers  of  such  writers  as  the 
Roman  Horace,  and  the  English  Byron,  of  the 
Scottish  Burns,  and  Irish  Moore,  fathom  the 
depth  of  their  profound  convictions  ;  since  they 
do  not  even  study  the  drift  of  the  current  that 
appears  on  the  surface.  The  higher  poets,  and 
men  of  genius,  who  have  left  the  more  lasting 
gems  of  literature,  must  be  first  understood,  and 
then  these  supposed  anomalies  will  assume 
consistency. 

The  epic  poets,  and  even  the  dramatists,  as 
distinct  from  the  lyric  bards  and  romancers,  have 
always  been  prophets  pointing  out  the  real  law 
of  wines.  The  poems  of  Solomon,  as  we  have 
seen,  were  parables,  veiling  truth  as  to  wines. 
All  through  the  Iliad  and  Odyssey  of  Homer, 
the  careful  student  may  trace  the  deepest  phi- 
losophy; which  comes  out  especially  in  their 
pictures  of  the  two  vices,  against  which  Solo- 
mon anticipated  the  blind  old  Grecian  bard  in 
warning  men  who  seek  eminence  by  superior 
merit.  The  power  of  the  intoxicating  cup,  pre- 
sented by  Circe,  made  brutes  of  the  companions 
of  the  wise  Ulysses,  while  he  stood  firm ;  but 


262  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

the  wooing  song  of  the  Sirens  would  have 
tempted  him  to  effeminacy,  the  sister  vice,  but 
for  his  own  injunction  to  his  companions  to  bind 
him  fast  to  the  mast  before  they  passed  the  isle 
of  the  enchantresses.  Virgil  but  repeats  the 
counsel  for  the  ages  taught  in  his  experience,  like 
that  of  wise  Ulysses  ;  while  he  also,  as  we  havQ 
seen,  pictures  the  happy  home  where  "  the  must 
is  boiled,"  that  it  may  not  ferment.  The  hero, 
who  is  also  a  sage,  may,  indeed,  by  his  own 
power  of  self-control,  resist  the  temptation  of 
the  cup,  when  proffered  by  women  vainly 
aspiring  amid  the  seductions  of  fashion  to 
maintain  the  claim  to  virtue  ;  and  by  this  same 
inward  power  he  may  resist,  when  coming  in 
this  open  form,  the  temptation  to  make  himself 
a  brute  by  drinking  of  the  intoxicating  cup. 
That  same  man,  however,  falling  gradually  into 
inaction,  lapses  into  lust,  like  Solomon,  the 
noblest  of  the  Hebrew  kings,  and  thence  into 
effeminacy ;  and  then  nothing  but  bonds  im- 
posed from  without,  by  comprnions,  will  save 
him  from  being  "  drowned  in  destruction  and 
perdition."  This  seems  to  be  the  secret  of  the 
power  of  Temperance  Associations,  and  of  the 
Total  Abstinence  pledge. 

Among  the  higher  poets,  in  the  epic  and 
drama,  Shakspeare  is  a  discerner  and  embodier 
of  the   law    of  abstinence    taught    in    history. 


Shakspeare  and  Wines.  263 

That  oft  quoted,  but  usually  misinterpreted  allu- 
sion of  Hamlet,  in  the  phrase  "  to  the  manner 
born,"  opens  a  vista  in  the  history  of  customs,  as 
seductive  as  they  are  oppressive  and  ruinous. 
Horatio  is  from  the  South ;  from  Italy,  whose 
effeminacy,  as  opposed  to  conviviality,  was  noted 
in  the  days  alike  of  Horace,  and  a  thousand 
years  before  him,  in  the  days  of  the  Trojan 
Eneas,  and  as  it  now  is  marked.  Hamlet,  on  the 
other  hand,  is  of  the  old  German  race ;  among 
whom  marriage  infidelity,  as  Tacitus  pictures, 
was  almost  unknown,  while  intoxication,  the 
most  beastly,  prevailed.  Down  to  the  times  of 
Shakspeare  and  of  his  Danish  hero,  the  habits 
of  the  two  regions,  as  in  the  Italy  and  the  Ger- 
many of  to-day,  showed  the  same  characteristic 
contrast. 

When  Horatio  is  roused  by  the  midnight 
noise  of  drunken  revelers,  coming  from  the  pal- 
ace of  the  newly-installed  king,  and  is  told  by 
Hamlet  of  the  "  swaggering  upstart "  draining 
his  "  draughts  of  Rhenish  wine,"  and  when,  with 
wonder,  this  novel  scene  of  brutal  drunkenness 
prompts  from  Horatio  the  inquiry,  "  Is  it  cus- 
tom ?  "  Hamlet's  reply  shows,  not  his  own,  but 
the  poet's  recognition  of  the  law  of  wines. 
Says  Hamlet  in  response  : 

"Ay,  marry,  is't : 
But  to  my  mind,  though  I  am  native  here, 


a64         The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines, 

And  to  the  manner  born,  it  is  a  custom 

More  honored  in  the  breach  than  the  observance ; 

This  heavy-headed  revel,  east  and  west, 

Makes  us  traduced  and  taxed  of  other  nations. 

They  clepe  us  drunkards  ;  and,  with  swinish  phrase, 

Soil  our  addition  ;  and,  indeed,  it  takes 

From  our  achievements,  though  performed  at  height, 

The  pith  and  marrow  of  our  attribute." 

If  that  German  habit  of  drinking,  from  the 
days  of  Tacitus  to  Shakspeare,  made  other  na- 
tions call  them  drunkards  and  swinish,  and  one 
"  to  the  manner  born  "  had  to  confess  that  it 
took  from  their  "  achievements  the  pith  and 
marrow  of  their  attribute " — an  attribute  so 
worthy,  in  many  an  age,  and  worthiest  now— 
it  should  riot  surprise  the  scholarly  Germans, 
that  the  same  ineradicable  impression  as  to  the 
unnatural  in  many  of  their  modern  sesthetic 
and  Hterary  achievements,  still  lives  in  the 
breasts  of  other  nations.  High  art  in  ideal 
poetry,  as  in  sculpture  and  painting,  pictures 
ever  the  true  law  of  wines. 

Here  the  line  of  distinction  between  men  who 
have  united  genius  and  constant  virtue,  and  their 
opposites,  is  specially  instructive.  The  former 
always  teach  the  lesson  of  abstinence.  Shaks- 
peare, Milton,  Pope,  are  constant  in  their  utter- 
ances like  these : 

**  Bacchus  that  first  from  out  the  purple  grape 
Crushed  the  sweet  poison  of  misused  wine." 


Poets  Inconsistent  as  to  Wines,        265 

"  Oh,  that  men  should  put  an  enemy  in 
Their  mouths  to  steal  their  brains  !  " 

♦*  Oh,  thou  invisible  spirit  of  wine,  • 

If  thou  hast  no  name  to  be  called  by, 
Let  us  call  thee  devil ! " 

"  In  the  flowers  that  wreath  the  sparkling  bowl, 
Fell  adders  hiss  and  poisonous  serpents  roll." 

**The  brain  dances  to  the  mantling  bowl." 

"  They  fancy  that  they  feel 
Divinity  within  them  breeding  wings," 

The  fact  that  Milton,  like  Shakspeare,  notes 
that  one  class  of  the  tempted  fall  a  prey  to  one, 
and  another  to  the  other  of  the  two  "  youthful 
lusts,"  prepares  the  thoughtful  studefit  to  esti- 
mate rightly  the  utterances  of  inconstant  genius. 
In  his  "  Samson  Agonistes,"  Milton  draws  out  at 
length,  in  the  colloquy  between  the  fallen  hero 
and  his  parents,  his  confession,  that  though 
temptation  to  licentiousness  has  led  him  into 
sin,  and  brought  its  penalty,  he  could  repress 
"  desire  of  wine," 

"  Which  many  a  famous  warrior  overturns." 
"  His  drink  was  only  from  the  liquid  brook." 

Coming  then  to  the  apparent  contradiction 
found  in  men  like  Horace  and  Byron,  we  find 
that  same  poet  of  the  sensual  and  voluptuous, 
in  company  with  the  abstemious  and  even  dys- 


266  The  Divine  Law  as  to  IVines^ 

peptic  Virgil  at  the  banquet  table  of  Mecsenas 
and  Augustus.  We  find  more :  that  his  seductive 
pictures  of  pleasure  in  the  wine-cup,  are  not  the 
serious,  deep  and  real  convictions  of  the  man 
when  he  is  himself  They  have  but  half  read 
Byron,  who  only  revel  in  his  "  Don  Juan  " ;  when 
intoxicated  the  poet  is  not  himself  Byron's 
sublime  genius,  the  poem  that  will  outlive  his 
age,  is  "  Childe  Harold."  There  he  is  himself, 
and  not  another,  and  a  deluded  man.  There, 
•his  reason  and  his  conscience — t/ie  man,  speaks ; 
not  the  beastly  "  law  in  the  members,"  which 
always,  as  in  Paul,  "  wars  against  the  mind." 
Let  any  young  man  who  thinks  Byron  was 
great,  or  Burns,  or  Moore,  because  they  drank 
intoxicating  wine,  turn  and  witness  the  hours  in 
the  lives  of  these  very  men,  when,  like  the 
youth,  in  Jesus'  parable,  it  could  be  said  "  he 
came  to  himself"  Read  all  such  men  wrote,  or 
none !  "  Drink  deep "  at  the  fount  of  their 
thought,  or  "touch  not  the  Pierian  spring!" 
No  men  ever  taught  the  law  of  wines  as  havfe 
men  like  these.  Their  "  mourning  at  the  last," 
is  like  that  of  the  French  popular  leader,  Mira- 
beau  ;  who,  but  for  the  weakening  of  his  phys- 
ical and  mental  power  by  his  early  drinking 
habit,  might  have  ruled  France  by  his  intellect, 
in  place  of  Napoleon  with  his  sword. 


Modern  Artists  and  Wines.  267 

MODERN    ARTISTS    AND    WINES. 

The  true  idea  of  art,  as  applied  to  science, 
brings  within  its  field  that  class  of  men  of  high 
endeavor,  who,  in  every  department,  seek  to 
make  the  discoveries  of  men  of  science  minister 
to  human  utility,  or  to  cultivate  the  love  of 
beauty.  Higher  artists,  like  poets,  lead  men  of 
science,  as  well  as  follow  them. 

Even  the  men  of  superior  mechanical  genius, 
inventors  in  the  useful  arts,  have  been  noted  for 
quick  observation  of  the  law  of  intoxicating 
drinks,  and  for  their  resoluteness  in  fixing  their 
own  laws  of  fashion  as  to  their  use.  Especially 
exposed  to  temptation  by  the  proffer  of  the  lux- 
uries  which  success  invites,  it  would  be  stranofe 
if  some  did  not  fall.  No  class  of  men,  however, 
more  quickly  recognize  the  law  of  their  own 
easily  excited  constitution ;  no  men  are  more 
humiliated  when  self-conviction  yields  to  the 
insidious  suggestion  of  meretricious  fashion ; 
and  no  men,  in  the  main,  are  more  intelligently 
abstinent  from  all  intoxicants,  even  from  light 
wines. 

The  men  of  higher  art,  in  its  various  depart- 
ments, are  ne^t  in  their  witness  as  to  the  law 
of  wines.  The  aspirants  for  fame  as  athletes^ 
who  school  themselves  to  attain  superior 
strength  and  elasticity  of  muscle,  have  always 


268  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

known  that  abstinence  from  intoxicants  is  abso- 
lutely essential  to  success.  Alike  among  the 
Greeks,  at  the  Olympic  games,  and  among 
modern  contestants,  though  in  seasons  of  re- 
laxation the  tempting  wine-cup  may  be  in- 
dulged in,  when  the  season  for  training  comes, 
a  self-imposed  abstinence  is  the  first  rule  to  be 
enforced.  As  the  commander  of  an  ocean 
steamer  will  soon  lose  his  place  if  he  can  not, 
during  the  entire  voyage,  practice  abstinence, 
so  the  stroke- oar  of  a  college  boat-club  would 
soon  pass  to  another  hand  if  the  man  who  holds 
it  could  not  abjure  wine.  Law  will  utter  its 
mandate,  and  put  in  its  claim !  Happy  the 
youth  who  from  preference  keeps  its  command  ! 
In  the  yet  higher  walks  of  the  plastic  arts, 
history  repeats  itself  Mrs.  Jameson  has  simply 
recorded  what  beforehand  might  have  been 
anticipated ;  that  the  great  masters,  Lionardo, 
M.  Angelo,  and  Raphael,  were  noted  for  theif 
strict,  moral  habits ;  among  others,  for  absti- 
nence from  intoxicants.  To  this  class,  the  yet 
greater  master,  Correggio,  adds  a  yet  brighter 
testimony.  In  later  days,  the  English  Cruik- 
shank,  now  brought  into  prominence  for  his  ab- 
stinence, illustrates  the  law,  and  the  reason  why 
many  artists  do  not  adhere  to  it.  When  he 
resolved  to  save  his  power  as  an  artist,  by  ab- 
stinence from  drinking  habits,  by  so  doing  he 


I 


Cruikshank  on  the  Law  of  Wines.      269 

was  forced  to  sacrifice  the  patronage  of  many 
of  his  former  flatterers.  About  1845,  he  drew 
and  published  from  conviction  of  duty,  his  de 
signs  of  "  The  Bottle,''  published  at  New  York 
in  1848,  with  poetic  comments  by  Grattan.  It 
sketched  eight  steps  in  the  wine-drinker's 
downward  career  ;  first,  the  husband  presenting 
the  ze;2W-glass  to  his  wife  ;  then  that  husband 
discharged  from  employ,  for  occasional  intoxica- 
tion ;  then  the  confirmed  drunkard,  pawning 
books  and  furniture  for  strong  liquors  ;  then  the 
sot  sending  his  children  to  beg ;  then  the 
swine-like  beast,  burying  some  of  these  chil- 
dren through  sickness  induced  by  want ;  then 
the  dog-like  brute,  quarreling  with  his  half-in- 
toxicated wife ;  then  the  raging  demon,  killing 
the  idol  of  his  youth  in  a  fit  of  passion  ;  and 
last,  the  raving  maniac  in  a  felon's  cell.  In  this 
picture  of  the  law  of  wine,  Cruikshank  simply 
took  a  stand  which  Murillo,  Durer,  and  even 
Rubens  confessed  was  the  true  one  ;  while  they 
knew,  too,  they  would  have  been  wiser,  hap- 
pier and  more  successful,  had  they  been  firmer 
in  maintaining  it.  Twenty  years  later,  in  the 
success  which  followed  his  "  Worship  of  Bac- 
chus," presented  to  and  patronized  by  Queen 
Victoria,  at  Windsor,  in  1867,  Cruikshank 
could,  in  the  climax  of  his  well-earned  fame,  re- 
joice in  the  progress  of  a  reform  he  had  aided 


270  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

to  advance.  And  when  now,  in  declining-  age, 
this  popular  artist  is  devoting  time,  property, 
and  talent  to  a  work  which  he  has  proved  to  be 
England's  greatest  modern  boon,  the  virtue  of 
abstinence  from  intoxicating  liquors,  he  can, 
with  the  joy  of  the  great  "  Master,"  in  a  higher 
work,  exult  that  in  old  age  he  is  bearing  his 
ripest  fruit. 

Cruikshank  is  not  an  exception  among  the 
men  of  kindred  genius.  Such  well  know  that 
the  secret  of  their  strength  lies,  Hke  that  of  the 
famed  Hebrew  Samson,  in  the  virtue  of  absti- 
nence from  every  intoxicant.  Gustave  Dore  is 
but  indicating  the  common  conviction  of  higher 
artists. 

MODERN    FASHIONABLE    SOCIETY    AND    WINES. 

The  power  in  controlling  society  designated 
by  the  term  "  fashion,"  has  been  a  study  since 
the  days  of  Aristotle.  That  clear  thinker  finds 
an  important  .principle  in  the  manifest  relation 
of  the  two  Greek  words  so  similar  in  sound; 
ethos  with  a  short  penult,  and  ethos  with  a  long 
penult.  The  former  means  a  custom  that  has 
grown  out  of  a  natural  and,  therefore,  permanent 
moral  conviction  that  has  established  uniform 
law  ;  the  latter  means  a  custom  that,  has  origi- 
nated in  some  whim,  often  in  some  folly  of  the 
day.    The  men  of  genius  in  literature  and  art, 


Wine  Destroys  Family  Succession.      271 

above  cited,  rose  above  the  latter  through  the 
power  of  the  former. 

The  origin  of  customs  of  luxury,  in  what  is 
called  "  good  society,"  is  made  clear  by  uniform 
history.  It  was  distinctly  seen  and  stated  be- 
forehand by  Samuel,  the  last  of  the  Republican 
rulers  of  the  Hebrew  nation,  what  the  fashion' 
of  a  court,  with  a  king  as  ruler,  would  be  ;  wine- 
drinking  being  prominent  in  the  decline.  It 
has  been  continuously  illustrated  in  all  nations, 
when  the  plain  and  frugal  habits  of  self-made 
men,  like  Cyrus,  Alexander,  Augustus,  Charle- 
magne and  Napoleon,  have  succumbed  to  a 
coterie  of  inferior  satellites,  who  talk  of  "  fash- 
ion "  as  lord  of  aU.  Under  the  doubly  seductive 
spell  of  flattery  and  sycophancy,  the  truly  great 
leader  is  made  to  think  himself  a  hero  where  he 
was  not  made  to  lead  ;  and,  led  himself  under 
the  leash  of  professed  masters  in  the  world  of 
fashion,  he  is  dwarfed  to  the  level  of  those 
■\vhose  only  merit  is  their  guile. 

The  wine-cup  comes  in  the  line  of  the  sedu- 
cer's arts,  both  male  and  female  ;  Cyrus  imitates 
Belshazzar  in  spite  of  his  youth's  better  convic- 
tions ;  Alexander  listens  to  courtesans,  instead 
of  to  Aristotle,  his  teacher,  and  to  Androcydes, 
his  physician  ;  Augustus  is  swayed  more  by  the 
voluptuous  Horace  than  by  the  intellectual  Vir- 
gil, and  yields  more  to  the  wine  than  to  the  wis- 


272  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines, 

dom  of  Mecstnas ;  and  Napoleon,  aping  at  last 
the  follies  of  effete  monarchs  that  he  had  con- 
temned, becomes  as  weak  as  they. 

America  has  as  yet  seen  but  here  and  there  a 
princely  family,  either  of  wealth  or  of  intellect, 
perpetuated  in  even  the  second  generation.  In 
the  American  Republic,  the  Astors  in  inherited 
fortune,  and  the  Adamses  in  hereditary  culture, 
are  as  rare  as  the  Catoes  and  Fabians  in  the 
old  Roman  Republic. 

Chief  among  the  causes  of  this  alarming  fact, 
is  that  absurdest  of  all  the  fancies  and  follies 
passing  current  under  the  pretense  of  "  fash- 
ion," wine-drinking.  The  man  who  by  absti- 
nence from  intoxicants  has  secured  the  mental 
and  moral  power  which  this  abstinence  bestows 
is  betrayed  into  the  fallacy  that  he  can  not 
maintain  position  in  good  society  without  ab- 
juring the  very  law  by  which  he  has  attained 
that  position.  Never  did  selfishness  conceive 
a  more  serpent-like  contradiction ;  and  yet, 
from  the  days  of  the  tempter  in  Eden,  It  has 
been  efficacious ;  as  it  was  when  that  arch  foe 
of  God  and  man,  hid  in  Eden  the  double-mean- 
ing of  his  flattering  fallacy,  "  In  the  day  ye  eat" 
or  drink  "  thereof,  ye  shall  be  as  gods,  knowing 
good  and  evil !  "  True  to  his  word,  in  modern 
fashion  as  In  Eden's  temptation,  all  that  is  new 
in  the  promise  Is  "  the  knowledge  of  tAe  evil ;  " 


Wine  Destroys  Family  Succession.      273 

and  that  knowledge  to  be  gained  by  bitter  ex- 
perience. 

The  self-made  and  self-elevated  prince  in  in- 
tellectual position  and  in  money-fortune,  must 
have  his  wine-vault,  and  his  dinner  accompani- 
ment supplied  from  its  stores.  The  writer  in  the 
Talmud,  who.  had  the  vision  of  Eden's  tempter 
passing  by  the  garden  of  Noah,  the  only  family 
saved  from  the  flood,  when  the  arch-foe  smiled 
and  went  away  sure  of  his  victim — that  writer 
was  not  a  seer  only,  but  a  student  of  history. 
How  soon  that  Noah  is  a  beast  in  his  drunken- 
ness, and  Ham,  his  son,  is  making  sport  of  his 
idiotic  father  !  T\\e.  family  fails  in  the  first  gen- 
eration. Only  one  cause  is  assigned  for  this  by 
the  inspired  writer  !  That  cause  should  startle 
aspiring  American  fathers.  They  are  repeat- 
ing, just  as  if  there  were  no  law  of  wines,  the 
same  insane  folly  of  seeking  to  maintain  posi- 
tion for  themselves  by  violating  the  very  law 
through  whose  observance  they  attained  it. 
Yea,  more ;  they  are  even  dreaming  that  their 
sons  and  daughters  are  to  be  exalted  by  that 
luxury  which,  without  exception  in  the  world's 
history,  has  ensured  family  downfall.  The 
wise  in  American,  and  even  more  in  European 
courts  and  families  are  reviewing  the  history 
of  the  Catoes ;  whose  ancestor  wrote  the 
earliest  preserved  recipe  for  "preserving  wines 
always  unfermented." 


274         ^^^  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines, 

MODERN    CHEMISTS    ON    THE    LAW    OF    WINES. 

In  America,  popular  science  embodied  in 
Text  Books  is  a  valuable  guide  to  more  ex- 
haustive treatises.  Most  of  the  Chemical  Text- 
Books,  as  those  of  Silliman,  Youmans,  Wells, 
and  of  Rolfe  and  Gillet,  treat  of  the  process  of 
fermentation.  They  describe  the  formation  of 
alcohol  as  a  transition  stage,  in  which,  if  nature 
be  allowed  to  complete  her  work,  undiverted  by- 
human  devices,  she  will,  like  her  Divine  Author, 
change  the  evil  into  good;  as  promptly  de- 
stroying, as  she  had  created,  the  lurking,  but 
short-lived  "  poison  in  the  cup."  The  more 
profound  works  of  men  like  the  American  Dal- 
ton,  the  English  Huxley,  the  French  Pasteur 
and  Engel,  and  the  German  Mayer  and  Hefm- 
holtz,  trace  to  its  germinal  development,  the 
series  of  processes  ;  first,  from  life  to  death, 
and,  second,  from  death  to  life,  in  the  two  suc- 
cessive fermentations  of  the  juice  of  the  grape. 
In  these  embryological  observations,  traced  by 
the  aid  of  the  microscope,  the  same  palpable 
fact  is  made  conspicuous  ;  that  the  alcoholic 
fermentation  develops  the  virus  found  in  all 
decay ;  which  virus,  as  a  deadly  poison,  none 
but  the  most  reckless  man  of  science  would 
allow  to  taint  his  blood. 

To   the   practical   truth    as   to   unfermented 


Modern  Chemists  on  the  Law  of  Wines.  275 

wines,  special  attention  was  given  by  Baron 
Liebig,  one  of  the  most  eminent  writers  on 
Chemistry,  applied  to  Agriculture,  to  the  Arts, 
and  to  the  laws  of  Flealth ;  whose  superior 
merit,  Baron  Humboldt  brought  out  in  1824,  and 
whose  fidelity  to  his  early  promise  was  attested 
till  his  death,  in  1873.  Among  his  numerous 
treatises,  the  most  popular  has  been  his  "  Chem- 
ishe  Briefe,"  published  in  1844,  and  soon  trans- 
lated into-  English  and  widely  sold  in  Great 
Britain  and  America,  under  the  title,  "  Familiar 
Letters  on*  Chemistry  and  its  Relations  to  Com- 
merce, Physiology  and  Agriculture."  In  Letter 
XX.  Liebig  indicates,  that  practical  experiment 
now  attests  the  effectiveness  of  the  methods 
employed  by  the  Romans  before  and  after 
Christ's  day,  in  obtaining  "  unfermented  wines." 
The  Roman  method  was  to  separate  the  watery 
saccharine  juice  from  the  glutinous  pulp  before 
applying  the  pressure  which  forced  out  the 
pulp.  The  Romans,  after  corking  and  sealing, 
immersed  the  bottles  of  strained  saccharine 
juice  in  cold  cistern-water.  Liebig  states  his 
method  thus  :  "  If  a  flask  be  filled  with  grape- 
juice,  and  be  made  air-tight  and  then  kept  for  a 
few  hours  in  boiling  water,  or  until  the  con- 
tained grape-juice  has  become  thoroughly 
heated  to  the  boiling  point,  the  wine  does  not 
ferment,  but  remains  perfectly  sweet  until  the 


2y6         The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

flask  is  again  opened,  and  its  contents  brought 
in  contact  with  the  air."  The  careful  reader 
will  observe,  that  Liebig  in  this  experimental 
proof  has  not,  like  the  ancients,  first  separated 
the  albuminous  pulp  from  the  saccharine  juice  ; 
that  he  applies  extreme  heat,  in  place  of  mod- 
erate cold,  to  arrest  ferment ;  and  that  then  it  is 
not  permanently  arrested  because  the  albumi- 
nous pulp  was  not  at  the  outset  excluded. 
The  practical  science  of  the  Romans  is  thus 
thrown  all  the  more  into  relief  Apparently 
self-guided,  Liebig  also  re-discovered  the  Ro- 
man method  of  correcting  failure  in  ill-corked 
bottles  by  the  use  of  sulphur  or  sulphur  fumes. 
In  his  edition  of  Turner's  Chemistry,  Liebig 
treats  fully  on  the  subject  of  fermentatioh. 

MODERN       ENCYCLOPAEDISTS       ON       THE      LAW     OF 
WINES. 

Modern  encyclopaedists,  of  whom  Pliny  was 
the  ancient  type,  while,  presenting  on  each 
topic,  the  results  of  recent  scientific  investiga- 
tion, trace  also,  more  or  less  fully,  the  history  of 
the  sciences  and  arts  of  which  they  treat  The 
encyclopaedists  of  France,  England  and  Amer- 
ica have  indirectly  gathered  testimony  of  great 
value  as  to  the  observed  dangers  from  alcoholic 
liquors,  and  the  means  of  preserving  wines  ex- 
empt from  alcoholic  admixture.     In  the  popular 


Modern  Encyclop<^dists  on  Wines.      277 

French  Cyclopsedia,  published  at  Paris,  in  1855, 
CoHn  states  the  origin  of  alcoholic  fermentation 
as  arising  from  the  presence  of  the  glutinous 
pulp  in  the  saccharine  juice ;  and  he  describes 
how  sweet  wines  (vins  doux)  are  obtained  by 
separation  of  the  saccharine  or  sugary  material 
(matiere  sucree)  from  the  albuminous  or  nitrog- 
enous matter.  He  especially  declares  the 
alcoholic  fermentation  to  be  but  a  stage  of 
nature  in  converting  "vins  doux,"  sweet  wine, 
into  "  vin-aigre,"  sour  wine,  or  vinegar. 

In  the  English  Cyclopaedia  of  Charles  Knight, 
London,  1859,  the  process  of  obtaining  sweet 
wines  is  described  with  these  remarks  :  *'  If 
sugar  predominates,  the  wine  is  sweet ;  if  gluten, 
it  is  liable  to  acetic  ferment,  forming  sour  wine. 
This  divides  wines.  While  the  vinous  fermen- 
tation goes  on  .  .  .  .  the  acetous  can  not 
commence."  Liebig's  methods  of  securing  wines 
free  from  alcohol  are  then  described. 

In  the  American  Cyclopsedia  of  the  Appletons, 
published  in  1874,  Liebig's  theories  and  results 
of  fermentation  are  presented  ;  and  a  rare  By- 
zantine work,  describing  the  methods  of  secur- 
ing sweet  and  unintoxicating  wines  during  the 
early  Christian  centuries,  is  cited.  The  relation 
of  "  Lachrymae  Christi "  to  old  Falernian  wines 
is  alluded  to,  and  the  return  to  scientific  meth- 
ods in  wine-making  throughout  Italy  is  noted. 


zyS  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines, 

In  the  Cyclopcedia  of  Johnson,  in  an  able  article 
by  Professor  Chandler,  of  New  York,  the  the- 
ory of  Helmholtz,  that  fermentation,  both  vinous 
and  acetous,  is  a  process  of  life — rather,  than  as 
Liebig  supposed,  a  stage  of  death,  succeeded-  by 
fitness  for  a  new  vitality — is  presented  ;  but  the 
fact  is  made  palpable,  that  the  formation  of  alco- 
hol is  a  transition  process  of  nature  ;  and  that 
the  alcohol  of  intoxicating  drinks  would  not  per- 
manently exist,  unless  man's  invention  interfered 
with  the  process. 

MODERN    MEDICAL    SCIENCE    AS    TO    WINES. 

The  progress  of  modern  chemistry  has 
directed  special  attention  to  the  nature,  the 
origin,  and  the  uses  of  alcohol  as  it  is  developed 
and  concentrated  in  wines.  Chemists,  proper, 
have  studied  this  merely  from  love  of  science ; 
conscientious  physicians,  especially  those  devo- 
ted to  the  effort  to  reform  inebriates,  have  made 
it  a  life-long  specialty  ;  while,  too  often,  state- 
ments of  medical  practitioners,  regarded  as  the 
teachings  of  science,  have  been  superficial  views 
framed  to  suit  the  prejudice  or  preference  of 
interested  parties.  Profound  specialists,  how- 
ever, in  medical  practice,  and  in  "  Materia 
Medica,"  such  as  Dr.  Benjamin  W.  Richardson, 
of  England,  and  Drs.  Stephen  Smith,  Charles 
Jewett,  and  others  of  America,  are   now  giving 


Decisions  of  Medical  Science.  279 

testimony  which  accords  with  the  observations 
of  a  line  of  the  ablest  practical  physicians  that 
have  succeeded  each  other  since  the  days  of 
the  Grecian  Hippocrates. 

These  results  are  unquestioned.  First,  Fer- 
ment is  a  process  of  destruction  oF  certain 
chemical  compounds  as  they  are  passing  over 
to  form  other  compounds.  Alcohol  is  an  inter- 
mediate, temporary  transition  product  of  vinous 
fermentation  in  grape-juice,  passing  through  the 
changes  incident  to  the  decomposition  of  some 
of  its  elements.  As  a  product  of  nature,  or  of 
the  Author  of  nature,  it  is  not  to  be  argued  that 
it  is  designed  to  be  healthful ;  any  more  than  it 
can  be  argued  that  the  virus  of  a  human  body, 
a  few  hours  after  death,  which,  if  left  to  nature's 
changes,  will  pass  into  a  condition  to  be  health- 
ful food  for  new  plant-life,  is  as  virus,  in  its 
transition  stage,  a  healthful  product. 

Second,  Alcohol,  arrested  in  its  own  natural 
passage  into  other  chemical  compounds  pro- 
duced by  the  second,  or  acetous  ferment,  is  a 
deadly  poison.  This,  the  Arabian  chemists, 
who  first  succeeded  in  concentrating  it,  and  who 
gave  it  its  title,  recognized  ;  and,  hence,  they 
gave  it  the  name  of  one  of  the  most  virulent 
poisons,  known  to  the  ancients  as  al-kohl,  or 
antimony.  Applied  to  a  surface-wound  it  acts, 
as  all  scientific  surgeons  agree,  as  a  caustic,  and 


28o         The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

searing-  application.  Taken  internally,  it  is  an 
irritant,  rather  than  a  stimulant.  As  a  tonic  it  is 
not  as  alcohol  that  it  is  used  ;  but  in  admixture 
with  other  ingredients  of  wines  and  brandies. 

The  ancient  physicians,  as  Hippocrates,  al- 
ready quoted,  recommended  alcoholic  wines  as 
an  anaesthetic,  to  relieve  pain  in  acute  disease, 
such  as  strangury.  The  fact  that  alcohol  in  its 
pure  state  is  not  administered  as  such  medici- 
nally, and  the  additional  fact  that  burnt  brandy, 
from  which  the  alcohol  is  removed,  has  the 
tonic  properties  of  the  brandy,  is  a  sufficient  in- 
dication that  alcohol  has  not,  as  such,  a  legiti- 
mate place  in  the  materia  medica,  except  as  an 
anaesthetic,  or  as  an  irritant.  Its  place  might 
be  supplied  by  other  tonics  fr^e  from  its  poison. 
Probably  such  tonics  would  be  supplied,  but 
for  another  illegitimate  and  unhealthful  effect 
of  wines  and  brandies ;  on  account  of  whose 
temporarily  stupefying,  but  permanently  ener- 
vating effect,  persons  diseased  in  body  and 
mind  crave  alcoholic  drinks. 

Third,  The  direct,  and  principal  effect  of  alco- 
hol, when  taken  into  the  stomach,  is  produced  on 
the  nervous  system.  Its  action  is  similar,  to 
that  of  nitrous  oxide  gas,  and  ether  vapor.  Its 
irritating  influence  gives,  for  a  brief  time,  a 
feverish  action  to  the  nerves ;  producing,  tem- 
porarily, pleasurable  sensations  and  nervous  ex* 


Physicians  on  Alcoholic  Wines.        281 

hilaration.  This  exhilaration,  however,  is  soon 
succeeded  either  by  nervous  prostration  or  de- 
rangement, which  exhibits  itself  in  sleepy  stu- 
por, or  in  sleepless  restlessness. 

The  testimonies  of  scientific  physicians,  and 
medical  experts,  have  been  multiplying  for 
years  in  America,  and  England.  Dr.  Thomas 
Sewell,  from  182 1  to  1839  President  of  the 
Medical  Faculty  of  Columbian  University, 
Washington,  D.C.,  the  trusted  medical  adviser 
of  men  of  the  highest  position,  followed  up,  for 
years,  a  series  of  post-mortem  examinations  at 
hospitals  and  asylums,  designed  to  trace  the 
effects  of  alcoholic  drinks  on  every  portion  of 
the  human  system.  The  results  of  his  investi- 
gations were  published  in  a  series  of  tracts, 
illustrated  with  microscopic  views  of  the  vari- 
ous tissues  as  affected  by  the  alcohol  in  wines 
and  other  intoxicants.  The  revelation  was  at 
that  day,  startling ;  but  his  deduction  as  to  ab- 
stinence and  the  use  of  other  tonics,  by  physi- 
cians, were  in  advance  of  public  sentiment.  In 
later  years  the  investigations  of  Dr.  A.  Coles,  of 
New  Jersey,  the  discriminating  and  timely 
treatises  of  Dr.  Charles  Jewett,  of  Connecticut, 
and  of  Dr.  Stephen  Smith,  of  New  York,  have 
given  new  testimony.  The  recent  volume  of 
Dr.  Ezra  M.  Hunt  on  "Alcohol  as  a  Food,  and 
a  Medicine,"  confirms  the  view,  that  it  is  in  no 


282  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

sense  nutritious,  and  that,  as  a  medicine,  it  is  a 
'*  cardiac  stimulant,  admitting  often  of  a  substi- 
tution." 

In  England  the  treatises  of  Dr.  Benjamin  W. 
Richardson,  on  "Alcohol,"  in  1875,  and  on 
"The  Action  of  Alcohol  on  Body  and  Mind,"  in 
1877,  have  begun  a  revolution  in  sentiment,  and 
a  reform  in  practice  in  England.  Dr.  W.  B. 
Carpenter,  supported  by  Dr.  Richardson,  as 
also  by  Professor  Youmans,  Dr.  W.  E.  Green- 
field, and  by  the  able  physicians  of  New  York 
devoted  to  the  restoration  of  inebriates,  unite  in 
urging  abstinence  from  all  intoxicants  on  those 
who  would  ensure  for  themselves  soundness 
of  body  and  mind.  Two  hundred  and  sixty-five 
English  physicians  and  surgeons  have  united  in 
an  appeal,  based  on  their  experience  in  hospi- 
tals, urging  the  medical  fraternity  not  to  recom- 
mend alcohol  so  as  to  make  it  seem  of  dietetic 
value.  Sir  Henry  Thompson,  the  eminent  sur- 
geon, personally  appeals  to  the  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury  to  use  his  religious  influence  to  sus- 
tain the  "  Medical  Faculties." 

Whatever  has  a  history,  has  also  a  law.  The 
ancients,  as  we  have  seen,  by  induction  from 
externally  observed  influences,  reached  the 
range  of  facts  that  controlled  their  sentiment  as 
to  intoxicating  wine  ;  and  these  facts  led,  first,  to 
individual  convictions  as  to  the  wisdom  of  per- 


Modern  Statesmen  and  Wines.         283 

sonal  abstinence  ;  then  to  municipal  statutes, 
designed  to  protect  women,  children,  and  other 
classes  most  exposed  to  temptation,  and  also, 
officers  when  on  duty  ;  and  finally  to  religious 
ordinances  against  intoxicants  used  in  religious 
rites,  and  by  officers  of  religion.  What  the 
ancients  attained  to  by  induction,  chemistry 
now  demonstrates  by  analysis  and  experiment, 
and  urges  as  law. 

MODERN    STATESMEN    AND    CIVIL    STATUTES    AS 
'TO    WINES. 

While  in  America  the  common  intoxicating 
beverages  are  distilled  liquors,  in  England  beer, 
in  Germany  wine  and  beer,  and  in  France  wine, 
are,  like  the  ancient  wines,  less  charged  with  al- 
cohol. In  both  England  and  America,  wines  are 
the  intoxicating  beverages  sought  by  the  more 
wealthy.  The  voice  of  the  people  and  the  prin- 
ciples of  statesmen  revealed  in  modem  legisla- 
tion, when  compared  with  ancient  statutes,  must 
be  carefully  analyzed. 

Very  many  leaders  of  public  sentiment  in 
Europe  and  America  urge  the  right  and  duty 
of  legislation  to  restrict,  and  even  to  prohibit 
the  sale  of  distilled  and  drugged  liquors ;  and  per« 
sonally  restrict  themselves  to  "  moderate  drink- 
ing." They  do  not,  however,  like  the  wisest  of 
the  Greeks  and  the  best  of  the-  Romans,  recog- 


284         The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines, 

nize  the  social  and  religious  evils  of  wine-drink- 
ing, and  the  fact  that  true  temperance  is  absti- 
nence from  all  intoxicants.  There  can  be  no 
question,  however,  that  modern  legislative  sci- 
ence is  following  rapidly  in  the  track  of  modern 
medical  science  as  to  alcoholic  wines. 

In  all  modern  as  well  as  ancient  legislation, 
intoxicating  liquors  have  been  selected  as  dis- 
tinct from  all  articles  of  food  and  drink,  to  be 
made  subjects  of  restrictive  legislation.  In  this 
respect  they  are  placed  in  the  class  with  other 
poisons.  The  principle  of  right,  the  duty  of  law 
is  thus  admitted ;  and  that,  in  all  modern  States 
and  nations.  Thus  admitted,  the  principle  must 
be  allowed  any  extent  of  application  which  the 
public  interest  and  the  popular  demand  requires. 
There  is  no  statesman  of  modern  times  who  will 
think  of  controverting  this  position  :  that  intox- 
icant beverages,  in  this,  as  in  all  past  ages,  must 
be  made  the  subject  of  repressive  legislation. 
The  simple  question  of  modern  times  is  this: 
Whether  the  ancient  wisdom  and  virtue  of  per- 
sonal abstinence,  and  hence,  of  consistent  legisla- 
tion, shall  be  revived  and  restored.  It  is  only 
this  feature  of  the  modern  temperance  reform 
that  comes  under  the  discussion  of  "  the  Divine 
Law  as  to  Wines." 

Though  difficult  of  separation  in  discussion, 
the   utterances  of  modern   statesmen   and   the 


French  Statesmeit  and  Abstinence,      285 

growing  drift  of  legislation,  tend  to  the  theory 
that  fermented,  as  well  as  distilled  liquors  are  in- 
jurious to  the  individual  and  society ;  that  law- 
makers should  themselves  set  the  example  of  ab- 
stinence ;  and  that  thus  they  should  be  prepared 
to  enact  and  to  enforce  laws  manifestly  required 
for  the  well-being  of  society. 

In  Germany,  r.s  Dr.  Philip  SchafT,  in  his  recent 
statement  as  to  the  American  Temperance  Re- 
form made  at  Basle,  Switzerland,  has  reported, 
Prince  Bismarck  has  revived  the  Reform  watch- 
word of  Luther ;  that  the  curse  of  Germany  is 
the  "  sauf  teufel,"  or  "  social-drinking  tempter." 
That  sagacious  statesman  affirms  that  the  beer- 
drinking  social  customs  of  Germany,  which  from 
social  customs  soon  grow  into  personal,  private 
habits,  make  the  common  people  "  stupid  and 
lazy,"  and  thus  prepare  them  to  be  the  fit  tools 
of  disorganizing  demagogues. 

As  to  France,  the  following  striking  example 
of  the  influence  of  popular  institutions  in  prompt- 
ing abstinence  from  both  narcotics  and  stimu- 
lants, is  thus  stated  by  a  correspondent  of  one 
of  the  leading  New  York  journals: 

"  M.  Jules  Simon  is  on  the  shady  side  of 
sixty.  He  belongs  to  the  evergreen  family  of 
French  public  men  who  never  smoked,  or  drank 
absinthe.  I  am  sorry  to  say  he  will,  in  all  likeli- 
hood, be  the  last  of  a  tribe  which  numbered  the 


286         The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines, 

three  Dupins,  Thiers,  Guizot,  Michelet,  Dufaure, 
Barthelemy  St.  Hilaire,  Mignet  and  Cousin. 
Victor  Hugo  only  smokes  in  the  Channel  Isl- 
ands, and  there,  never  in  excess.  Etienne 
Arago's  mouth  was  never  familiar  with  a  cigar. 
He  is  near  eighty,  and  in  conversation  fresh, 
sparkling,  and  full  of  vigor.  Were  I  fond  of 
making  reflections,  I  should  say  to  anti-tobacco- 
nists, do  not  these  splendid  evergreens  furnish 
you  with  a  strong  argument  against  the  '  fragrant 
weed '  ?  Make  use  of  it ;  and  preach  to  the 
rich  that  by  abstaining  from  tobacco  and  strong 
drink,  and  being  temperate  in  all  things,  they 
may  hope  to  enjoy  wealth  and  health,  and  the 
full  possession  of  their  faculties  up  to  the  age  of 
eighty."  This  testimony  is  in  accord  with  the 
fact  already  observed  in  ancient  history  ;  that  the 
men  who  make  the  most  possible  of  themselves, 
and  do  most  for  the  real  welfare  of  their  country 
as  statesmen,  are,  in  both  practice  and  theory,  ab- 
stinent from  narcotics  and  stimulants. 

In  England,  the  attention  of  Parliament, 
which  reflects  popular  and  ruling  sentiment,  has 
been  called  to  laws  tending  to  secure  absti- 
nence even  from  fermented  drinks,  as  beer ;  and 
the  advocates  of  such  reform  are  numerous  and 
eminent.  A  recent  publication,  a  "  Prize  Es- 
say "  by  James  Smith,  M.A.,  of  the  Free 
Church    of    Scotland,    published    at    London, 


English  Beer  and  Wine  Laws.        287 

in  1875,  brings  together  facts  that  have  im- 
pressed the  English  people,  and  their  legisla- 
tors, with  the  enormous  property-waste  and 
pauper-destitution,  aside  from  the  destruction 
of  health  and  morals  which  the  mere  social  cus- 
tom of  beer-drinktng  has  imposed  on  the  noble 
Anglo-Saxon  race. 

The  treatise  was  selected  from  among  eighty- 
six  Essays,  presented  to  a  committee  of  award, 
whose  chairman  was  R.  Payne  Smith,  D.D., 
Dean  of  Canterbury.  While  most  of  the 
volume,  under  the  title  "  The  Temperance  Ref- 
ormation and  the  Christian  Church,"  is  devoted 
to  the  consideration  of  distilled  liquors,  and  of 
Church  and  State  duty  as  to  their  use  and  sale, 
'  wines,"  also,  are  brought  in  for  consideration. 
Under  Henry  VII.,  who  reigned  1485  to  1509, 
an  act  of  Parliament  (nth  of  Henry  VII.)  was 
passed,  providing:  "It  shall  be  lawful  to  two 
Justices  to  reject  and  put  away  common  ale- 
selling  in  towns  and  places  where  they  shall 
think  convenient."  Under  Edward  VI.,  in  1552, 
(Acts  5  and  6),  the  license  laws  were  elaborated 
for  enforcement ;  whose  effect  is  thus  celebrated 
in  the  instructions  of  the  Lord-Keeper  to  the 
Circuit-Judges  in  1602,  under  Elizabeth:  They 
should  "  ascertain  for  the  Queen's  information, 
how  many  ale-houses  the  justices  of  the  peace 
had   pulled    down,   so    that   the  good  justices 


288         The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

might  be  rewarded  and  the  evils  removed." 
The  writer  traces  an  alternation  of  advancing 
and  receding  legislation,  down  to  the  famous 
"  Beer  House  "  act  of  1830,  which,  it  was  sup- 
posed, by  increasing  the  facilities  for  the  drink- 
ing of  fermented  liquors  wcJuld  check  the  use 
of  distilled  liquors.  The  result  was,  that  while 
from  1821-30,  ten  years  prior  to  the  act,  the 
amount  of  British  spirits  consumed  was  nearly 
fifty-eight  million  gallons,  in  the  subsequent  ten 
years  it  was  nearly  seventy-seven  millions,  or 
an  increase  of  32  per  cent.  In  1839,  Lord 
Brougham,  speaking  in  the  House  of  Lords,  re- 
peats Aristotle's  argument  in  reply  to  the  Athe- 
nian, in  Plato  :  "  To  what  good  was  it  that  the 
Legislature  should  pass  laws  to  punish  crime, 
or  that  their  lordships  should  occupy  them- 
selves in  finding  out  modes  of  improving  the 
morals  of  the  people  by  giving  them  education  ? 
What  could  be  the  use  of  sowino-  a  little  seed 
here,  and  plucking  a  weed  there,  if  these  beer- 
shops  were  to  be  continued,  that  they  might  go 
on  to  sow  the  seeds  of  immorality  broadcast 
over  the  land  ?  "  The  enlarged  license,  given 
to  beer-houses,  having  failed,  the  same  experi- 
ment was  tried  as  to  wines,  in  an  act  of  i860,  a 
foreign,  instead  of  a  home  product ;  but  with 
just  the  same  result.  The  act  of  1853,  how- 
ever, like  American  Statutes  prohibiting  sales 


yohn  Bright' s  Appeal.  289 

on  Sunday  and  at  late  hours,  with  other  like  acts, 
was  working  gradual  good ;  since  it  stamped 
the  use  and  sale  as  in  itself  an  evil,  and  a  dan- 
Iger.  The  writer  goes  over  the  Scripture  state- 
ments as  to  wine  ;  examining  the  nature  of 
Hebrew  wines;  citing  Drs.  Duff  and  Thomson, 
as  to  the  use  of  pure  "  grape-juice,"  and  of 
"  dibs,"  or  syrup,  by  the  natives  in  Syria,  such 
as  every  studious  tourist  may  meet ;  quoting, 
also,  Jewish  Rabbis  of  New  York,  as  to  their 
use  of  "  unfermented  wine ; "  and  replying  to 
Dean  Alford  on  New  Testament  wines. 

The  Honorable  John  Bright  has  recently 
made  this  public  appeal  to  the  Scotch  people  : 
among  whom,  more  generally  than  in  England, 
distilled  take  the  place  of  fermented  liquors  : 
"  If  all  the  ministers  of  the  Scotch  Church  were 
to  banish  whisky  from  their  houses,  and  the 
consumption  of  it  from  their  customs  or  social 
habits,  they  could  do  much  to  discredit  and  to 
withdraw  one  fertile  source  of  poverty  and 
suffering  in  Scotland."  This  statement  of  that 
sagacious,  popular  ParHamentarian,  in  the  very 
use  of  the  term  "  customs,  or  social  habits,"  and 
in  the  mention  of  "  poverty  and  suffering,"  in- 
directly, and,  therefore,  most  effectively,  indi- 
cates the  grounds,  in  law,  on  which  legislation 
will  proceed,  when  the  public  mind  comes  to 

13 


290  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

require  its  interest  and  the  legitimate  mode  of 
securing-  that  interest. 

In  American  jurisprudence,  the  consistent 
practice  of  able  statesmen  has  led  to  progressive 
legislation,  which  has  not  been  in  advance  of 
public  sentiment.  The  American  people  will 
have  occasion,  for  generations,  to  be  grateful 
for  such  examples,  and,  therefore,  such  efficient 
leaders  in  legislation,  as  the  Honorables  George 
N.  Briggs,  and  Henry  Wilson  of  Massachu- 
setts, Honorable  William  E.  Dodge  of  New 
York,  and  others. 

WINES    IN    RECENT   AMERICAN    LEGISLATION. 

As  intimated,  legislation  becomes  efficient 
and  effective  when  law-makers  are  personally 
conformed  in  spirit  and  life  to  the  laws  they 
enact.  In  three  special  respects,  legislation  as 
to  wines,  and  other  fermented  liquors,  has  wit- 
nessed a  steady  advance  in  public  sentiment. 
First,  The  increase  of  foreign  populations,  ad- 
dicted to  the  use  of  wines  and  beers,  as  well  as 
their  use  in  so-called  fashionable  American  so- 
ciety, has  led  to  the  extension  of  the  laws  for- 
merly  restricting  the  sale  and  use  of  distilled 
liquors,  so  as  to  include  wines  and  beers. 
Second,  The  methods  of  evading  the  force  of 
law  in  restricting  the  sale  and  use  of  all  kinds  of 


Wines  in  Recent  American  Legislation.  291 

intoxicants,  has  led  to  the  extension  of  the  privi- 
lege of  supervision ;  wives,  and  even  children, 
being  authorized  to  warn  the  dealer,  and  to 
prosecute  for  damages  ;  while  the  officers  of  the 
law  have  supervisors  over  them,  elected  to  see 
that  their  duty  is  discharged.  Third,  The  right 
to  withhold  licenses,  and  thus  to  prohibit  en- 
tirely the  sale  and  use  of  intoxicants,  has  been 
given  by  States  to  communities  and  towns  within 
their  limits ;  while  the  National  Government, 
through  its  Courts,  has  re-affirmed  the  right  of 
States  to  enact  such  provisions,  tending  to 
prohibition. 

A  pamphlet  just  issued  by  the  National 
Temperance  Society  and  Publication  House,  at 
58  Reade  Street,  New  York,  gives  in  full  the 
"  Liquor  Laws  "  of  several  leading  States,  and 
an  abstract  of  the  Statutes  of  other  States ; 
which  the  student  of  law  will  find,  should  he 
consult  the  Revised  Statutes  of  the  several 
States  of  the  Union,  are  a  fair  index  to  the  prog 
ress  of  popular  sentiment  throughout  the 
United  States.  They  indicate  advance  in  the 
three  particulars  above  mentioned.  They  show 
especially,  that  this  advance  has  prevailed  in 
States  where,  ten  years  ago,  such  legislation 
would  have  been  found  opposed  to  the  spirit  of 
the  people. 

In  Maine,  the  statutes  are  varied  and  minute, 


292  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

In  the  chapter  framed  in   1872,  it  is  declared: 
■'  Ale,  porter,  strong  beer,  lager-beer,  and  all  other 
malt  liquors,  wine  and  cider,  shall  be  considered 
intoxicating  liquors  within  the  meaning  of  this 
chapter,  as  well  as  all  distilled  spirits."     In  the 
amendment  of  1877,  providing  for  stricter  en- 
forcement  of  the   law,   the   prohibition   reads: 
"  Wine,  ale,  porter,  strong  beer,  lager-beer,  and 
all  other  malt  liquors  and  cider  when  kept  or  de- 
posited with  intent  to  sell  the  same  for  tippling 
purposes."     The  penalty  for  selling  without  li- 
cense, "  any  intoxicating  liquor  manufactured  in 
the  State,  except  cider,  shall  be  two  months'  im- 
prisonment, and  a  fine  of  one  thousand  dollars." 
In  Vermont  the  Statute  mentions  "  spirituous  or 
malt  liquor,"  and  declares  that  the  place  of  sale 
without  license  "  shall  be  held  and  regarded  as  a 
common   nuisance,  kept   in  violation   of  law." 
The  Massachusetts  Statutes  mention  "  spirituous 
or  intoxicating  liquors  "  ;  from  whose  list  "  cider 
and  native  wines  "  alone  are  excepted.      They 
permit  a  wife,  or  even  a  child,  to  be  an  author- 
ized informer.      In  a  later  section,  the  Statute 
specifies :     "  The  terms   intoxicating  liquor,  or 
liquors,  in  this  Act,  shall  be  construed  to  include 
ale,  porter,  strong  beer,  lager-beer,  cider,  and  all 
wines,  as  well  as  distilled  spirits."     In  Connecti- 
cut, the  License  provisions  adopted  in  1872,  and 
again  in   1874,  cover  "  spirituous  and  intoxicat- 


Maine  and  New  England  Laws.       293 

ing  liquors,  ale,  or  lager-beer  "  ;  the  Act  not  de- 
ciding that  ale  and  lager-beer  are  intoxicating, 
while  later  Acts  of  1874  and  1877,  specify  "  spir- 
ituous or  intoxicating  liquors,  ale,  Rhine  wine, 
and  lager-beer." 

New  England  legislation  is  but  little  in  ad- 
vance of  the  Middle,  Western,  and  even  some  of 
the  Southern  States,  in  the  three  particulars 
named.  The  New  York  Statute  of  185  7,  made  for 
a  region  where  wines  early  became  prominent, 
specifies  "  spirituous  liquors  and  wines ;"  forbidding 
the  gift  or  sale  of  either  to  apprentices  or  minors. 
Acts  of  1869  and  1870,  provide  special  officers 
in  counties  and  towns,  for  the  enforcement  of 
the  liquor  laws.  Acts  of  1873  and  1874,  extend 
the  provisions  of  the  law  to  "  spirituous  liquors, 
wines,  ale,  and  beer  " ;  and  provide  special  dam- 
ages to  parties  injured  by  abuse  of  license.  In  a 
decision  rendered  by  Judge  J.  Welles,  in  i860, 
the  following  language  is  used  by  the  Court: 
"  That  ale,  strong  beer,  porter,  and  most  of  the 
fermented  liquors  known  in  this  country,  .... 
can  and  do  produce  intoxication,  ....  and 
that  such  is  the  ordinary  effect  of  their  use  as  a 
beverage,  no  man  of  mature  years  ....  can 
have  failed  to  observe."  In  New  Jersey,  early 
Statutes  included  "  vinous,  spirituous,  and  strong 
liquors,"  and  forbade  the  sale  of  any  liquors  on 
credit ;  while  a  later  section  as  to  abuses  enu 


294         ^-^^  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

merates  "  vinous,  fermented,  spirituous,  or  strong 
and  intoxicating  liquors."  An  Act  of  1870 
enumerates  "ale,  strong  beer,  lager-beer,  porter, 
wine,  or  any  other  malt  liquors  "  ;  and  an  Act  of 
1874,  prohibits  the  sale  of  all  these  on  Sunday. 
In  1853  began  a  succession  of  Acts  of  New  Jer- 
sey, granting  special  privileges  of  restriction  to 
towns,  which  has  led  on  to  special  Acts  authoriz- 
ing the  citizens  of  specified  localities,  by  majority- 
vote  to  prohibit  the  sale  of  all  liquors  named  in 
the  law  by  withholding  licenses.  In  an  appeal 
case,  which  took  the  ground  that  it  was  uncon- 
stitutional for  the  Legislature  to  confer  on  local 
authorities  the  right  to  prohibit,  the  Supreme 
Court  of  the  State  decided :  "  That  municipal 
corporations  may  derive  the  power  to  interdict 
the  sale  of  intoxicating  drinks  from  the  same 
source  to  which  they  owe  their  authority  to 
regulate  it." 

The  Western  and  Southern  States  are  rapidly 
following  the  Eastern  and  Middle  States  in  the 
three  respects  named.  An  Act  of  Ohio,  in  1866, 
uses  the  general  term  "  any  intoxicating  liquor 
whatever."  Michigan,  in  1877,  specifies  the 
'  manufacturing,  selling,  or  offering  for  sale  spir- 
ituous or  intoxicating  liquors,  wine,  brewed  or 
malt  liquors."  Kansas  requires  "  that  petitions 
for  license  must  be  signed  by  a  majority  of  all 
the  citizens  in  the  ward  or  township,  of  twenty- 


Middle  and  Western  State  Laws.       295 

one  years  of  age  or  over."  Iowa  prohibits  the 
manufacture  and  sale  of  intoxicating  liquors 
"except  for  mechanical,  medical,  culinary,  or 
sacramental  purposes";  excepting  only  those 
imported  under  laws  of  the  United  States,  and 
"  beer,  cider  and  wine  made  of  home-products, 
and  for  home  use."  West  Virginia  forbids 
painted  and  other  screens  to  hide  purchasers 
from  the  public  eye.  Kentucky,  by  a  recent 
Act,  provides  for  local  prohibition  of  the  sale  of 
"spirituous,  vinous  or  malt  liquors,"  and  adds 
this  special  provision  as  to  druggists  and  phy- 
sicians :  that  the  druggist  may  sell  only  "  on  a  pre- 
scription made  and  signed  by  a  regular  practicing 
physician " ;  and  adds,  "  but  no  physician  shall 
,  make  or  sign  any  such  prescription,  except  the 
person  for  whom  it  is  made  be  actually  sick,  and 
such  liquor  is  absolutely  required  as  a  medi- 
cine." Last  of  all,  the  Mexican  border  State  of 
Texas,  by  an  Act  passed  in  1776,  provides  for 
local  prohibition,  with  this  noteworthy  excep- 
tion: "  Provided,  that  nothing  herein  contained 
shall  be  construed  to  prohibit  the  sale  of  wines 
for  sacramental  purposes;  nor  alcoholic  stimu- 
lants as  medicines  in  cases  of  actual  sickness, 
when  sold  upon  the  written  prescription  of  a 
regular  practicing  physician,  certifying  upon 
honor  that  the  same  is  actually  necessary  as 
a  medicine."     These  three  specifications,  "  wines 


2g6  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

for  sacramental  purposes,"  "  medicines  in  cases 
of  actual  sickness,"  and  "  certifying  upon  honor 
that  the  same  is  actually  necessary  as  a  medi- 
cine," are  the  three  points  about  which  new 
studies  and  new  statutes  are  yet  to  cluster. 

The  recent  enactment  of  such  State  Laws, 
and  their  endorsement  on  repeated  appeals  by 
United  States  Courts  as  constitutional,  gives 
striking  testimony  to  the  fact,  that  the  people 
of  the  United  States,  as  a  body,  believe  in  these 
three  facts :  first,  that  wines  and  other  fermented 
liquors  are  intoxicating  and  dangerous ;  second, 
that  as  such,  their  use  by  youth,  and  even  their 
prescription  as  a  medicine  by  physicians,  is  to  be 
strictly  guarded,  if  not  positively  prohibited  by 
law ;  and  third,  that  the  interests,  material  and 
moral,  of  any  community  give  them  the  right  to 
prohibit  both  the  sale  and  use  of  intoxicants  in 
their  neighborhood. 

While  the  legitimacy,  under  State  Constitu- 
tions, of  Local  Prohibition,  has  been  maintained, 
its  legitimacy  under  United  States  law  has 
also  been  repeatedly  tested.  From  the  time  of 
the  armed  opposition  to  the  "  Whisky  Act," 
under  Washington,  the  right  of  Congress,  as  of 
State  Legislatures,  to  tax  the  importation,  man- 
ufacture and  sale  of  spiritous  liquors,  has  been 
maintained.  But  the  plea  that  this  tax,  levied 
by  Congress,  can  not  be  consistent  with  local 


Ancient  Lazas  Leading  to  Modern,      297 

prohibition,  has  been  always  met  by  adverse 
decisions.  Said  Honorable  Chief-Justice  Taney, 
in  an  early  appeal  case :  "If  any  State  deems 
the  retail  and  internal  traffic  in  ardent  spirits 
injurious  to  its  citizens,  and  calculated  to  pro- 
duce idleness,  vice  or  debauchery,  I  see  nothing 
in  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States  to  pre- 
vent it  from  restraining,  or  from  prohibiting  it 
altogether,  if  it  thinks  proper "  (5  Howard). 
The  decisions  of  succeeding  judges  have  re- 
presented the  early  argument  most  elaborately, 
as  applied  to  wines. 

And  here  the  thoughtful  student  of  the  past 
recalls  that  this  modern  conviction  and  conduct 
is  but  the  reviving  of  the  wisdom  and  virtue  of 
early  ages  and  generations.  It  but  reflects  the 
wisdom  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  of  Brah- 
mins and  Egyptians,  of  inspired  Moses  and 
Paul,  as  we  have  seen  ;  men  who  wrote  when 
distilled  liquors  were  unknown,  and  when  the 
only  intoxicants  were  fermented  liquors,  espec- 
ially wines,  in  whose  healthful  ingredients  the 
poisonous  stage  of  ferment  had  been  perpetua- 
ted to  pamper  diseased  and  depraved  human 
cravings.  It  but  restores,  moreover,  the  virtue 
of  ancestral  generations ;  for  any  one  that  will 
trace  the  history  of  legislation,  back  from  Black- 
stone  and  the  Code  Napoleon,  through  Anglo- 
Saxon  and  old  German  codes,  till  they  meet 
13* 


298  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

and  interlace  with  the  Roman  Civil  Codes,  he 
will  see  that  the  earlier  German,  French  and 
Anglo-Saxon  "witan,"  or  wise  men,  legislated, 
\n  all  their  generations,  against  fermented  wines. 

Yet,  more,  the  reasoning  which  is  presented 
as  justifying  and  demanding  legislation,  as  to 
wines  and  fermented  liquors,  is  testimony  that 
experience  in  modern  Europe  as  to  the  de- 
moralizing and  ruinous  influence  of  wines,  is 
just  that  ascribed  to  them  by  the  ancients. 

To  this  discussion,  much  has  been  contributed 
by  the  published  treatises  and  addresses  of 
Honorable  Messrs.  William  E.  Dodge,  William 
B.  Spooner,  and  Neal  Dow ;  and  of  Messrs. 
A.  M.  Powell,  J.  W.  Ray,  B.  D.  Townsend,  J. 
L.  Baily,  and  J.  Black  ;  as  also  by  Rev.  Drs. 
A.  A.  Miner  and  B.  St.  James  Fry,  and  by 
Rev.  Messrs.  E.  H.  Pratt  and  W.  F.  Crafts  ;  who 
have  discussed  the  economical  and  social  in- 
terests involved. 

Here  the  work  of  Honorable  Robert  C.  Pit- 
man, LL.D.,  Associate  Justice  of  the  Superior 
Court  of  Massachusetts,  just  issued,  and  enti- 
tled "The  Problem  of  Law  as  to  the  Liquor 
Traffic,"  comes  in  with  its  special  testimony. 
While  most  of  the  volume  is  devoted  to  the 
evils  of  distilled  intoxicants,  the  19th  Chap- 
ter, entitled  the  "Milder  Alcoholics,"  brings 
out    an   array    of    testimony    by    careful    ob- 


Wine-Drinking  in  France.  299 

servers  quite  unlike  that  of  casual  tourists  in 
Europe.  Of  these  gathered  testimonies,  the 
following  are  specimens :  In  France,  Monta- 
lembert  said,  in  the  National  Assembly,  as 
early  as  1850,  "Where  there  is  a  wine-shop, 
there  are  the  elements  of  disease,  and  the 
frightful  source  of  all  that  is  at  enmity  with  the 
interests  of  the  workman."  In  1872,  the  French 
Government  appointed  a  committee  to  report 
on  the  national  vice  of  wine-drinkino-.  In  the 
report  of  their  Secretary,  they  say,  after  citing 
the  fearful  demoralization  produced  by  wine  be- 
fore, during,  and  after  the  war  with  Prussia: 
"There  is  one  point  on  which  the  French  As- 
sembly thought  and  felt  alike To  re- 
store France  to  her  right  position,  their  moral 
and  physical  powers  must  be  given  back  to  her 

people To  combat  a  propensity,  which 

has  long  been  regarded  as  venial,  because  it 
seemed  to  debase  and  corrupt  only  the  indi- 
vidual, but  the  prodigious  extension  of  which 
has  resulted  in  a  menace  to  society  at  large 
and  to  the  temporary  humiliation  of  the  country, 
seemed  incumbent  on  the  men  to  whom  that 
country  has  entrusted  the  task  of  investigating, 
and  remedying  its  evils."  In  Switzerland,  Dr. 
Guillaume,  of  the  National  Society  for  Peniten- 
tiary Reform,  states,  in  1872,  that  "the  liberty 
of  the  wine- traffic,  and  intoxication   therefrom, 


300         The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

is    the  source  of  fifty   per  cent,  of  the  crimes 
committed." 

In  Italy,  Cardinal  Acton,  late  Supreme-Judge 
at  Rome,  has  stated  that  nearly  all  the  crimes 
at  Rome  "originated  in  the  use  of  wine."  Re- 
corder Hill,  appointed  to  gather  facts  abroad,  to 
influence  British  legislation,  reported  in  1858, 
"  Each  of  the  governors  of  State  prisons  in 
Baden  and  Bavaria,  assured  me  that  it  was  wine 
in  the  one  country,  and  beer  in  the  other,  which 
filled  their  jails."  American  legislation  as  to 
wines  and  beers,  is  but  following  modern  as 
well  as  ancient  experience ;  for  all  the  dangers 
attending  the  use  of  distilled  liquors  are  linked 
to  the  use  of  fermented  wines. 

WINE    IN    RECENT    CHURCH    REFORM. 

As  just  intimated,  that  peculiar  proviso  of  the 
most  advanced  American  legislation,  which,  in 
forbidding  the  local  prohibition  of  the  sale  of 
"  intoxicating  wines  "  for  certain  "  necessary  " 
uses,  as  "  medicinal  and  sacramental  purposes," 
is  the  hinge  of  thought  on  which,  for  ages,  good 
men  have  sought  the  light  of  truth.  Their  con. 
victions  have  centered  about  two  points :  first, 
the  fact  that  Gospel  "  temperance  "  implies  and 
requires  abstinence  from  intoxicating  bever- 
ages ;  second,  that  it  is  the  duty  of  the  Chris' 


Wine  in  Recent  Church  Reform,       301 

tian  Church  to  seek,  if  it  may  be  found,  an  un- 
fermented  and  unintoxicating  wine. 

It  should  be  observed,  that  among  earnest 
Christian  workers,  in  City  Missions  especially, 
many  reformed  inebriates  have  been  brought 
into  Christian  Churches,  both  in  Great  Britain 
and  in  America.  In  the  recent  large  increase 
of  this  number,  the  danger  of  reviving,  at  the 
Lord's  Supper,  a  craving  for  intoxicating  drink, 
has  become  an  alarming  reality.  Men,  like  Mr. 
Moody,  who  never  knew  the  power  of  this 
habit,  have  supposed,  that  by  regeneration  the 
thirst  for  intoxicants  is  eradicated.  Others,  like 
Mr.  Gough,  who  have  had  personal  experience, 
attest  that  "  the  law  in  the  members  "  is  never 
eradicated ;  that  the  struggle  to  give  the  pre- 
ponderance to  the  "law  of  the  mind"  is  life- 
long ;  and  that  it  is  presumption,  not  faith,  that 
would  require  an  intoxicating  wine  to  be  used 
at  the  Lord's  Supper ;  as  it  would  have  been 
presumption,  not  faith,  a  "  tempting,"  not  a 
trusting  God,  in  Jesus,  to  have  violated  the  law 
of  nature  by  leaping  from  the  pinnacle  of  the 
temple.  Hence,  reformed  inebriates,  with  one 
voice,  have  asked  for  an  unintoxicating  wine  at 
the  Lord's  Supper ;  and,  when  this  provision 
has  been  thought  impossible,  they  have  con- 
scientiously abstained  often  from  partaking  of 
the  cup. 


302  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

In  meeting  this  demand  of  Christian  convic- 
tion, a  large  addition  to  the  number  of  advocates 
for  abstinence  as  temperance  has  been  called 
forth ;  while  many  have  united  in  seeking  an 
unintoxicating  wine.  This  drift  of  popular  re- 
ligious conviction  has  been  so  strong,  as  to  reach 
men  of  eminence  in  every  branch  of  the  Christian 
Church. 

Four  years  ago  it  found  expression  in  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church.  While  in  Cincinnati, 
Ohio,  Archbishop  Purcell  commended  temper- 
ance among  German  and  Irish  Catholics,  yet  de- 
clared that  beer  was  needed  to  give  strength  to 
the  laborer,  quoting,  but  misinterpreting.  Psalm 
civ.  15  and  2  Mace.  xv.  39;  in  New  York  city, 
Archbishop,  now  Cardinal  McCloskey,  declared 
that  abstinence  from  intoxicants  was  the  only 
true  temperance ;  and  he  cited  Christ's  abstinence 
in  the  agonies  of  death  as  teaching  the  doctrine. 
At  the  same  time,  in  England,  Archbishop  Man- 
ning, as  the  representative  of  Roman  Catholi- 
cism in  Great  Brii  ain,  urged  that  entire  abstinence 
from  all  intoxicants  was  the  only  hope  of  saving 
the  Anglo-Saxon  and  Celtic  races  from  physical 
and  spiritual  degeneracy. 

In  the  English  Episcopal  Church  a  louder  and 
more  united  voice  has  been  heard.  Some  two 
years  since,  some  conscientious  clergymen  in  the 
diocese  of  the   Bishop  of  Lincoln,  having  em 


Canon  Farrar  on  Wines.  303 

ployed  unfermented  wine  at  the  Holy  Commun- 
ion, a  prohibition  from  the  bishop  was  issued 
until  the  propriety  of  such  departure  from  long- 
established  custom  could  be  historically  tested. 
Without  question,  if  that  history  be  sufficiently 
traced,  the  custom  of  the  early  Church  based  on 
the  appointment  of  Christ,  and  the  re-discovery 
of  that  appointment  by  the  early  English  Re- 
formers, will  stay  the  prohibition.  This,  the  in- 
quiry awakened  in  the  mind  of  such  a  leader  as 
Canon  Farrar  most  clearly  indicates. 

In  his  familiar  "  Talks  on  Temperance,"  just 
published,  in  ten  platform  addresses,  Canon 
Farrar  gives  his  reasons  for  recently  becoming 
himself  an  abstainer,  and  for  urging  it  on  the 
English  Church  and  p)eople,  both  as  a  Christian 
and  a  national  duty.  It  is  interesting  to  trace, 
amid  his  fervid  appeals  and  graphic  pictures,  a  re- 
turn to  the  Roman  virtue  and  the  New  Testament 
interpretation  of  the  primitive  Church  reflected 
from  that  virtue.  He  says :  "  The  simple  wines 
of  antiquity  were  incomparably  less  deadly  than 
the  stupefying  and  ardent  beverages  on  which 
£150,000,000  are  yearly  spent  in  this  suffering 
land.  The  wines  of  antiquity  were  more  like 
syrup ;  many  of  them  were  not  intoxicant  but  in 
a  small  degree  ;  and  all  of  them,  as  a  rule,  were 
only  taken  when  largely  diluted  with  water." 
.  .  .  .   "  They  contained,  even  when  undiluted 


304  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

but  four  or  five  per  cent,  of  alcohol ;  whereas, 
our  common  wines  contain  seventeen  per  cent." 
He  refers,  indirectly,  to  the  legend  of  Satan's 
visit  to  the  vineyard  of  Noah,  already  fully 
quoted  from  the  Talmud.  Citing  the  indirect 
testimony  of  artists,  he  exclaims:  "  If  you  would 
know  what  your  fathers  thought,  look  at  Ho- 
garth's ghastliest  pictures  of  Rum  Lane  and  Gin 
Alley."  Of  himself,  he  says  :  "  When  a  youth,  I 
was  mainly  a  water-drinker.  When  I  was  an 
undergraduate  ....  I  never  once  had  a  bottle 
of  wine  or  spirits  of  any  kind  in. my  rooms. 
When  I  became  a  man,  ....  if  I  thought  of 
total  abstinence  at  all,  I  regarded  it  as  a  some- 
what harmless,  but  perfectly  amiable  eccentricity. 
It  was  only  two  years  ago  that  my  attention  was 
first  seriously  called  to  the  enormous  evil  of 
drink When  I  came  to  London,  I  al- 
most entirely  ceased  to  touch  fermented  liquor." 
He  proceeds  to  trace  how,  step  by  step,  his  in- 
vestigations led  him  to  sign  the  pledge  of  life-long 
abstinence.  Still  unsettled,  however,  as  to  Script- 
ure teaching,  he  declares :  "  I  shall  say  this 
only :  that  wine  means,  primarily,  only  the  juice, 
and  often,  as  I  believe,  only  the  unfermented 
juice  of  the  grape."  He  quotes  statements  of 
eminent  English  physicians  as  to  the  abuse  of  al- 
coholic prescriptions  ;  and  he  cites  Captain  Webb 
and  the  American  Weston,  as  reviving  the  ab 


American  Tracts  and  Treatises.        305 

stinence  of  the  ancient  "  athletes."  He  quotes 
the  line  of  the  Latin  poet  Propertius :  "  Vino  for- 
ma perit.vino  consumitur  setas,"  "by  wine  beauty 
perishes,  by  wine  age  is  wasted  ;  "  and  he  dwells 
on  the  inconsistency  of  taking  as  a  guide  By- 
ron's example  in  his  confessed  follies.  Certainly 
Canon  Farrar  is  preparing  the  English  people  to 
listen  to  ancient  sages  who,  like  himself,  argued 
that  abstinence  from  intoxicating  wines  was  the 
only  "  temperance  "  ;  and,  yet  more,  he  may  pre- 
pare them  for  the  return  to  the  "unfermented 
wines  "  for  which  he  longs,  and  which  in  all  ages 
they  have  found  who  have  earnestly  sought 
them. 

In  America,  the  tracts  and  treatises  of  many 
eai  nest  students  have  each  added  some  new  fact 
in  the  wide  field  of  historic  truth  ;  among  which 
are  noteworthy  those  of  Rev.  Drs.  T.  L.  Cuyler, 
H.  Johnson,  C.  H.  Fowler,  S.  K.  Leavitt,  C.  L. 
Thompson,  D.  Read,  J.  C.  Holbrook,  J.  M. 
Walden,  J.  B.  Dunn,  and  A.  B.  Rich ;  also  of 
Rev.  Messrs.  F.  A.  Spencer,  H.  W.  Conant,  A. 
G.  Lawson,  and  A.  S.  Wells.  The  treatise  of 
Rev.  Dr.  Wm.  Patton  has  pierced  a  specially 
rich  vein  of  investigation.  The  volume  now 
submitted  to  the  public  was  prompted  by  a  criti- 
cism on  the  action  of  a  Presbyterian  Synod  in 
Western  New  York,  who,  following  the  lead  of 
many  of  different  denominations  in  Great  Brit- 


3o6         The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines, 

ain  and  America,  discussed  the  expediency  ol 
introducing  "  unfermented  wine  "  at  the  Lord's 
Supper.  It  is  indicative  that  inquiry  is  directed 
in  the  pathway  of  truth  when,  as  in  geological 
explorations,  the  common  trend  is  seen  by  all 
observers  alike ;  and  it  is  only  needed  that  the 
fundamental  fact,  to  which  men  in  every  age 
have  alluded,  should  be  made  the  clue  to  the 
interpretation  of  their  statements. 

UNIFORMITY  IN  FACTS,  AND  HARMONY  IN  CON- 
VICTIONS, THE  TESTS  OF  THE  DIVINE  LAW  AS 
TO    WINES. 

Uniformity  in  the  action  of  forces  in  the  Uni- 
verse, and  of  organic  development  in  Natural 
History — since  like  effects  result  from  like 
causes — leads  to  truth  in  science,  and  to  estab- 
lished physical  law.  Harmony  in  human  con- 
victions, leadir  g  to  common  civil  customs,  is  the 
foundation  of  moral  judgment  as  to  right,  and 
of  common  law.  Continuity  in  the  evolution  of 
cycles,  marked,  for  example,  in  the  out-croppings 
of  geological  strata,  is  the  more  manifest  when 
breaks  reveal  on  the  edges  of  their  dykes  the 
rupture  of  what  was  once  unbroken.  The  con- 
tinuity of  recorded  history  is  all  the  more  ap- 
parent when  the  severed  parchment-leaves, 
once  stitched  into  a  connected  roll,  show  by  the 
matching  needle-holes,  and   by   the  words  re- 


"Lackrymes  Christi."  307 

peated  at  the  bottom  and  top  of  su^.'cessive 
pages,  how  the  writers  who  penned  their  sever- 
al records,  matched  their  work  to  that  of  their 
predecessors.  The  review  of  this  entire  roll 
on  a  single  point,  may,  with  the  aid  of  personal 
observation  on  the  Mediterranean  shores  from 
the  Nile  to  the  Alps,  and  with  the  affluent  tes- 
timonies of  eye-witnesses  of  many  an  age  and 
language,  be  made  to  illustrate  this  test  of  the 
Divine  law  as  to  wines. 

The  visitor  in  Southern  Italy  meets  a  wine 
called  "  Lachrymse  Christi,"  tears  of  Christ. 
The  name  impresses  him  ;  its  simple  origin  in- 
terests him ;  and  the  links  of  its  history  cover 
the  life  of  civilized  and  redeemed  man.  It  is  a 
Latin  name  ;  framed  by  men  believing  in  Christ 
and  seeking  His  purity  of  character  and  life. 
At  home,  or  on  the  Mediterranean  shore,  the 
inquirer  pulls  a  ripe  grape  from  its  cluster,  and 
presses  it  gently ;  when  a  rounding  drop  of  the 
clearest,  purest  nectar  gradually  oozes,  forms 
into  a  sphere,  separates  itself  from  the  protrud- 
ing pulp,  and  like  a  crystal  tear-drop,  falls  to  the 
ground.  When  caught  and  collected  in  a  cup, 
these  drops  form  a  fluid  which  rapidly  dries  in 
the  sun,  becomes  a  syrup,  then  a  jelly,  then  a 
honey,  scarcely  to  be  distinguished  from  the 
bees'  deposits.  In  fact,  it  is  just  this  pure  sac- 
charine-juice sucked  by  the  bee,  not  only  from 


3o8  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines, 

varied  flowers  in  spring-,  but  from  varied  fruits 
in  autumn,  that  forms  the  mass  of  unfermenting 
syrup  deposited  by  the  bee  as  honey  in  its 
waxen  cells,  whose  perfect  likeness  to  sweet 
wines,  on  the  one  hand,  and  to  syrup  on  the 
other,  led  to  the  common  names,  "  debsh,"  in 
Hebrew,  and  "  meli,"  in  Greek.  Those  "  tears  " 
of  the  grape  can  not  ferment ;  for  the  ferment 
in  the  pulp  has  been  separated  from  the  fluid. 
Centuries  ago,  in  the  dark  ages  recorded  by 
Boland  in  his  "  Acts  of  the  Saints,"  intelligent 
and  pious  monks,  living  on  the  northern  cra- 
ter-peak of  Vesuvius,  made  an  unfermented 
wine  from  the  rich,  sweet  grapes  of  the  moun- 
tain-side ;  and,  out  of  love  to  Christ's  example 
and  appointment,  they  called  it  "  Lachrymse 
Christi,"  tears  of  Christ. 

The  wines  of  that  name  now  met,  are  sweet, 
but  alcoholic  red  wines,  made  for  gain  any- 
where ;  and  their  history  tells  of  a  degeneracy 
following  the  age  of  the  primitive  wine. 

Forty  years  ago,  the  wines  of  Southern  Italy 
were  prepared  without  skill ;  the  rich  wines  of 
the  Middle  Ages,  and  the  art  of  preparing  them, 
having  been  utterly  lost.  Since  that  era,  mod- 
ern science,  re-applied  in  art,  has  re-discovered 
three  facts.  First,  The  neglected  vines  which 
yield  a  grape  with  large  pulp  and  little  sugary 
juice,  which  juice,  when  pressed  out,  soon  fer- 


Preparation  of  Unfermented  Wines.    309 

ments,  may  by  culture  be  made  to  yield  three 
times  the  amount  of  sugary  juice.  Second,  By 
care,  the  ferment  may  be  arrested,  before  it  be- 
gins, or  at  any  stage  of  its  progress.  Third, 
The  best  mode  of  excluding  the  air  from  the 
fresh  juice  so  as  to  prevent  ferment  is  to  pour 
fresh  olive-oil  over  the  top  of  the  jar  or  flask  ; 
leaving  it  uncorked,  that  the  bubbles  of  carbonic 
acid-gas,  which  arise,  may  escape  through  the 
oil  without  exposing  the  grape-juice.  And  here 
another  age  rises  and  opens  to  view. 

It  is  now  generally  agreed  that  the  modern 
"  Lachrymse  Christi "  was  successor  to  the  old 
"  Roman  Falemian,"  specially  celebrated  by 
Horace.  The  Falernian  wines  were  products  of 
Southern  Italy.  Horace  speaks  of  different 
varieties,  as  the  old  (Serm.  II.  iii.  115),  the  ar- 
dent (Od.  II.  xi.  19,  20),  the  severe  (Od.  I.  xxvii. 
9,  10) ;  and  also,  of  that  sweet  as  the  honey  of 
Hymettus  (Serm.  II.  ii.  15,  16);  but  he  dwells 
more  on  the  Falernian  vines  (Od.  I.  xx.  10,  and 
III.  i.  43),  and  on  their  envied  grapes  (Od.  II. 
vi.  19,  20).  Virgil  describes  the  presses,  with 
strainers,  which  furnished  the  pure  juice  without 
ferment ;  as  he  in  youth  worked  at  them.  First, 
There  were  the  foot-vats  ;  in  which  "  the  vint- 
age foamed  on  the  full  brims,"  as  he  with  his 
comrades  "  tinged  the  naked  ancles  with  new 
must "  (Geor.  II.  6,  8).     Second,  There  was  the 


3  lO         The  Divine  Law  as  to  JVines, 

twist  or  torcular  press ;  with  its  cloth-sacks 
(cola),  its  twisting  staves  (prela);  from  which, 
in  "  great  drops "  (guttse),  gathered  and  flow- 
ing "as  streams"  (undse),  the  bottles  to  pre- 
serve it  were  filled  (Geor.  II.  240-245).  So  com- 
pletely did  the  straining  process  of  the  twist-press 
prevail,  that  it  gave  the  specific  name  "  torculum," 
or  "torcular,"  among  the  "Rustic"  writers,. to 
wine-presses  in  general ;  as  the  student  of  Cato, 
Varro,  Columella  and  Pliny,  whose  observa- 
tions covered  three  centuries,  will  note.  More 
than  this  :  Jerome,  with  incomparable  facilities 
for  a  correct  judgment,  finds  this  method  of 
straining  the  unfermenting  jui^  from  the  fer- 
menting pulp,  a  controlling  idea,  from  Moses  to 
his  own  day ;  as  his  universal  use  of  the  neuter- 
plural  adjective  "  torcularia,"  or  twist-press  ap- 
paratus, indicates.  The  Hebrew  word  "  yeqeb," 
used  sixteen  times  from  Num.  xviii.  27  to  Zech. 
xiv.  10,  refers  specifically  to  the  juice-tub,  under 
the  spout  of  the- grape-vat  in  which  the  grapes 
are  crushed  and  pressed  ;  as  is  indicated  by  the 
Greek  term  "  hypolenion,"  under-tub,  used  Isa. 
xvi.  10;  Joel,  iii.  13;  Hag.  ii.  17,  though  the 
general  term,  "lenos,"  is  used  in  Num.  xviii. 
27,  and  Joel  ii.  24,  where  the  allusion  is  general. 
Again,  the  Hebrew  word  "  gath,"  used  five 
times,  refers  to  the  grape-vat  in  which  the 
grapes    were    trodden ;    as    the    Greek    term 


Wine-Making  the  Same  in  all  Ages.    311 

**lenos,"  in  the  five  cases  (Jud.  vi.  11  ;  Neh.  xiii. 
15;  Isa.  Ixiii.  2;  Lam.  i.  15;  Joel  iii.  13),  at- 
tests ;  the  latter  case  being  specially  significant, 
as  the  Hebrew  "gath"  and  "yeqed,"  and  the 
Greek  "lenos"  and  "  hypolenion,"  are  con- 
trasted in  the  same  sentence.  This  distinction 
in  the  Greek  is  marked  in  the  New  Testament 
allusions  (Rev.  xiv,  19,  20;  xix.  15),  where  the 
"  treading  "  is  prominent,  and  '*  lenos  "  indicates 
it;  while  in  Mat.  xxi.  2iZ'^  Mark  xii.  i,  where 
the  "digging"  is  prominent,  Matthew  uses 
"lenos"  the  general,  and  Mark,  writing  for  Ro- 
mans, "  hypolenion  "  the  specific  word.  Again, 
the  word  "  poorah,"  twice  used,  in  (Isah.  Ixiii. 
3  ;  Hag.  ii.  17),  is  the  ladle  with  which  the 
strained  must  is  dipped  fi*om  the  juice-tub  into 
the  jars  or  flasks ;  as  the  Greek  translators  in- 
dicate by  referring  to  the  "  measures  "  (metretas) 
in  the  latter,  and  to  the  "  staining  juice  "  dipped 
out  in  the  former  case.  The  fact,  now,  that 
Jerome  renders  these  three  Hebrew  words  by 
the  general  term  "  torcularia,"  twist-press  ap- 
paratus, indicates  that  he  recognized  the  uni- 
versal prevalence  under  the  whole  Hebrew  his- 
tory, and  in  the  Christian  Church  of  the  first 
four  centuries,  of  the  separation  of  fermenting 
pulp  from  grape-juice. 

Pliny,  again  (Nat.  His.  xiv.  6),  describes  the 
kinds  and  quality  of  Falernian  wine  as  it  existed 


312  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

under  Augustus,  when  Horace  and  Virgil 
wrote ;  saying  that  "  of  all  kinds,  it  was  least 
calculated  to  injure  the  stomach  ;  "  a  fa:t  to 
which  the  "  Rustic  "  writers  all  allude,  and  which 
Galen,  the  physician  of  the  day,  applies  in  his 
art.  But  Pliny,  though  writing  only  a  century 
after  Virgil,  speaks  of  the  adulteration  and  per- 
version of  the  pure  Falernian.  Of  that  of  one 
locality,  he  says :  "  It  has  lost  its  repute 
through  the  negligence  of  the  growers  ;  "  and  of 
another  location  :  "  Latterly  they  have  some- 
what degenerated,  owing  to  the  rapacity  of  the 
planters,  who  are  usually  more  intent  upon  the 
quantity  than  the  quality  of  their  vintage  ;  "  in 
which  we  can  see,  as  if  we  were  there  with 
Pliny,  the  strainer  pushed  aside,  the  pulp  flow- 
ing with  the  pure  juice  into  the  vat,  and  a  sadly 
fermented,  instead  of  an  unfermented  wine,  the 
result. 

But  another  stage  of  backward  transit  brings 
us  to  the  "  protropos  "  of  the  Greeks ;  or  the 
oozing  juice  of  the  clusters  on  the  vine  caught 
in  pans  as  it  dripped  before  the  harvest. 
Thence,  again,  we  find  ourselves  in  Egypt ; 
especially  in  the  vintage-scenes  pictured  on  the 
tomb-walls  of  Beni  Hassan  in  Upper  Egypt, 
sculptured  and  painted  in  the  days  of  Joseph. 
We  scan  the  two  presses,  and  the  method  of 
separating  and  storing  the  sugary  juice  without 


Wine- Making  the  Same  in  all  Ages,    313 

the  fermenting  pulp.  The  more  carefully  pre- 
pared is  that  from  the  small  twist-press.  A 
sack,  about  three  feet  long,  is  fastened  by  a 
ring  at  one  end  to  a  stout  post ;  a  rope  at  the 
other  end  passes  through  a  hole  in  another 
post ;  a  strong  staff,  about  four  feet  long,  is 
turned  by  three  men  ;  while  a  fourth  attends  to 
a  large  pan  into  which  the  juice  squeezed  from 
the  sack  is  falling  in  drops.  The  larger  press 
is  an  immense  vat  in  which  ten  or  twelve  youths 
are  treading  the  grapes  with  their  feet.  From 
two  orifices,  one  near  the  top  and  the  other 
near  the  bottom,  flow  streams  of  juice.  The 
upper  stream,  evidently  furnished  with  an  inside 
strainer,  as  Wilkinson  intimates  (Anct.  Egypt., 
c.  v.),  flows  into  a  small  tub,  whence  an  attend- 
ant dips  the  fresh  and  strained  must,  with  a 
large-nosed  scoop,  into  jars  ;  over  which,  when 
filled,  another  attendant  pours  from  a  smaller 
scoop,  what  we  may  now  regard  fresh  oil ; 
while  other  attendants  set  away  these  jars,  with 
or  without  covers,  in  the  store-house.  It  is 
not  to  be  wondered  at  that  minds,  having 
thus  before  them  the  connected  facts,  see  in 
this  an  explanation  of  the  butler's  dream,  inter- 
preted by  Joseph  (Gen.  xl.  11),  and  of  the  He- 
brew "  tirosh,"  familiar  to  Isaac  (Gen.  xxvii.  28, 
T^']^,  whose  aperient  action  Job  (xx.  15)  illus- 
trates. 


314  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

While  thus  the  breaks  in  the  records  reveal 
more  fully  the  uninterrupted  succession  of  un- 
fermented  wines,  variations  in  the  nature,  use 
and  effects  of  fefmented  wines,  make  clear  their 
constant  law ;  since  these  variations  can  be 
traced  to  circumstances  of  location  and  of  era, 
which  have  naturally  produced  those  changes. 
Among  European  races  the  kindred  terms 
"  oinos  "  in  Greek,  and  "  vinum  "  in  Latin,  have 
passed  into  cognate  names  prevailing  in  all 
modern  tongues ;  all  of  which  are  generic,  as 
is  "wine"  in  English.  In  the  Semitic  family, 
however,  the  Hebrew  generic  word  "yayin," 
apparently  kindred  to  the  Greek  "  oinos,"  has 
been  superseded  in  Aramaic,  Syriac  and  Arabic, 
by  the  special  word  "  chemer,"  named  from  the 
first-glance  appearance  of  the  effervescence  seen 
in  ferment.  So  the  terms  indicating  the  effects 
of  wines  have  had  meanings  varying  with  the 
ideas  of  those  who  have  used  them.  An  Ameri- 
can preacher  who  reports  that  his  London  peer 
"  drinks,"  seems  in  England  to  be  a  slanderer ; 
because  the  word  there,  means  to  use  intoxi- 
cants excessively,  while  here  it  only  indicates 
that  one  is  not  an  abstainer.  So  "  methusko  " 
meant  "  sated,"  when  applied  to  the  gods  who 
drank  "  nectar ;  "  and  in  the  Greek  Anthology, 
it  means  "drenched,"  when  it  is  applied  to 
altars   soaked  with  offerings   of  milk   (galakti, 


Exceptions  Attest  Law.  315 

Anth.  XL,  viii.  3).  So,  too,  the  word  "  shekar," 
in  its  changing  meanings,  makes  its  employ  by 
Maimonides  in  the  twelfth  century,  an  excep- 
tion proving  a  rule.  The  noun  "  shekar,"  ac- 
cording to  Castell,  means  in  Hebrew,  some- 
times, "  vinum  vetus,"  old  wine,  and,  sometimes, 
**  vinum  commistum,"  the  "  edusma,"  or  honey- 
sweet  of  the  Greek  Fathers.  In  Chaldee,  it  is 
"cervisia,"  ale,  made  from  "barley,"  or  "  the 
juice  of  apples."  In  Syriac,  it  is  *'  saccharum," 
or  the  sugary  juice  of  various  fruits.  In  the 
Gemara,  Buxtorf  finds  it  to  mean  "  potus  ex 
hordea  coctus,"  a  drink  of  barley  boiled.  In 
the  Arabic,  Freytag  cites  instances  where  it  is 
"a  drink  from  dates  (dactylis),  from  dried 
grapes  (uvis  passis),  also  sugary  juice  (sac- 
charum)." Long  before  these  lexicographers 
made  their  collations,  Wickliffe  had  rendered 
"sikera"  in  the  New  Testament,  "cider."  In 
accord  with  these  varied  meanings  of  the  noun, 
the  verb  "  shakar,"  indicating  the  effect  which 
led  to  the  name  of  the  drink,  is  equally  varied 
in  signification.  In  the  Hebrew  of  Jer.  xlviii. 
26,  where  its  effect  is  "vomiting,"  Castell  ren- 
ders it  "  largius  bibit,"  he  drinks  too  largely ; 
while  in  the  Ethiopic  version  it  is  used  for  the 
Hebrew  "malats,"  to  be  "  sweet,"  in  Psalm  cxix. 
103.  Indeed,  this  change  in  the  meaning  of 
"  shakar,"    or    rather    this    illustration    of    its 


3i6  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

adapted  signification,  occurs  in  the  experience 
of  Noah  nigh  Ararat  as  compared  with  that  of 
Joseph  in  Egypt;  as  we  have  already  seen 
(Gen.  ix.  21,  and  xliii.  35).  In  Arabic,  Freytag 
finds  it  applied  to  the  udders  of  camels  and 
sheep  distended  with  milk.  When,  then,  Mai- 
monides  and  Bartenora  use  the  word  "  shakar," 
to  indicate  the  effect  of  repeated  cups  at  the 
Passover,  these  facts  serve  to  make  the  excep- 
tion confirm  the  rule  as  to  Jewish  Passover 
wine.  First,  The  earlier  and  later  custom  of 
the  Jews,  shows  that  the  spirit  of  the  twelfth 
century  in  Spain  was  exceptional  in  Hebrew 
conviction.  Second,  The  text  of  the  Mishna, 
written  in  the  second  century,  gives  no  warrant 
for  this  comment  of  the  Rabbis  of  the  twelfth 
century.  Third,  The  statements  of  Maimoni- 
des  in  the  "  Yad  Hachazakah "  (II.,  iii.  2-7), 
that  the  Nazarites  "sinned  against  their  own 
souls  "  in  their  abstinence,  and  atonement  was 
required  for  this  sin  (Num.  vi.  11),  while  yet  he 
says,  "  He  that  is  of  a  heated  temperament 
ought  neither  to  eat  meat  nor  to  drink  wine  " — 
these  extreme  statements,  both  questionable, 
reveal  a  mind  unfitted  for  comment  on  such  a 
subject.  Fourth,  The  very  word,  "  shakar," 
by  which  Bartenora  and  Maimonides  indicate 
the  effect  of  the  Passover  cup,  so  different 
from  its  meaning  in  purer  ages,  is  itself  a  con- 


The  Translators  on  '^Ttrosk."         317 

demnation  of  the  spirit  of  the  age  which  had 
so  perverted  the  purer  custom  of  their  fathers. 
It  is  not  surprising,  therefore,  that  such  a 
flood  of  Hght  dawned  on  the  earnest  and  labo- 
rious Reformers  who  penetrated  more  or  less 
into  this  history  of  facts.  All  the  translators, 
Roman  and  Protestant,  Italian,  Spanish,  French, 
German,  and  English,  saw  in  the  "  tirosh  "  of 
the  Old  Testament,  the  Grecian  "gleukos," 
and  the  Roman  "  mustum."  Castell,  with  the 
whole  range  of  Syriac  and  Arabic  translations, 
of  the  Rabbinic  Targums  and  Talmud,  before 
him,  not  only  rendered  "tirosh"  must,  but  he 
argued  that  the  translation  of  the  Hebrew 
"cheleb"  (Num.  xviii.  12)  by  "aparche"  in 
the  Greek,  was  intended  to  present  the  idea  of 
Herodotus  (III.,  24),  and  of  Xenophon  (Hier. 
iv.  2),  which  prevailed  alike  among  the  early 
Ethiopians  of  Central  Africa,  and  of  primitive 
Asiatics  ;  their  offerings  were  "fresh,"  that  they 
might  be  untainted  with  decay.  Language 
could  not  have  been  constructed  more  definitely 
to  represent  the  product  ot  the  vine  acceptable 
in  religious  offerings  than  that  used  by  Moses 
when  he  added  a  prefix  to  the  unfermented 
grape-juice  offered  to  the  Lord  ;  requiring  that 
it  be  "  the  fresh  of  tirosh."  It  was  natural  that 
this  expression,  rendered  in  English  by  "  best  of 
the  wine,"  should  recall  to  Castell  and  Cocceius 


3i8  7/k'  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

the  nature  of  "  the  best "  wine  made  by  Christ, 
and,  therefore,  drunk  by  Him  ;  and  that  it  should 
have  prevented  such  men  from  introducing, 
from  the  spirit  of  "custom,"  any  perversion  of 
the  requirements  of  Christ  as  to  the  Supper, 
imagining  that  "  inebriating  wine  "  should  take 
the  place  of  his  own  twice-repeated  description, 
"  the  fruit  of  the  vine." 

Another  age  of  desired  reformation  has 
dawned.  The  spirit  of  men  like  Luther  and 
Knox,  of  Howard  and  Wilberforce,  calls  for  a 
return  to  the  primitive  "  fruit  of  the  vine,"  at 
the  Lord's  Supper.  Science  has  well-nigh 
attained  to  it  in  the  experiments  of  Liebig. 
Christian  faith  will  fully  attain  to  it ;  for  faith  is 
first  "  the  substance  of  things  hoped  for ;  "  hope 
"  waits  with  patience  "  till  study  and  skill  open 
a  "  door  of  hope ;  "  faith  then  again  comes  in 
with  the  assurance  that  "  the  secret  of  the  Lord  " 
— all  that  He  sees  needful  to  honor  His  word — 
will  be  found  in  His  works  ;  faith,  thus,  becomes 
"  the  evidence  of  things  not  seen  ;  "  and  in  due 
time  it  "  works  by  love  "  to  secure  the  end  it 
seeks.  When  attained,  unfermented  wine  at 
the  Supper  will  certainly  be  that  first  appointed 
by  Christ. 

Finally,  the  permanency  of  the  Divine  meth- 
ods for  man  to  learn  truth  and  duty,  test  the 
existence   of  law.     The   last   difficulty   of  the 


Faith  Obeys  Divine  Law,  319 

Christian  inquirer  as  to  the  Divine  Law  of  Wines 
is  this  :  He  asks,  "  If  the  knowledge  of  unfer- 
mented  wines  be  so  important,  why  has  not  the 
New  Testament  made  its  nature  and  the  mode 
of  its  preparation  manifest?"  Here,  again, 
truth  and  its  author  prove  ever  the  same.  First, 
The  Bible  was  given  to  reveal  spiritual,  not 
material  truth ;  moral  duty  being  impressed 
when  material  truth  is  discovered.  Second, 
Material  truth  essential  to  human  welfare  is  dis- 
covered when  the  desire  to  know  moral  duty  is 
controlling.  Oil  and  wine  in  their  nature  and 
virtues  are  in  this  respect  parallel.  In  warm 
climates,  where  medical  science  seeks  to  bring 
disease  to  the  skin,  and  so  eradicate  it,  anoint- 
ing with  oil  is  the  general  specific  for  cleanli- 
ness and  health.  David  awoke  to  the  law  by 
experience  (2  Sam.  xii.  20)  ;  Christ  but  al- 
luded to  it  in  correction  of  extreme  abstinence 
(Mat.  vi.  17)  ;  His  apostles  recognized  that  it 
was  a  part  of  the  faith  that  worked  miracles 
(Mark  vi.  13);  and  (James  v.  14)  left  it  unex- 
plained, as  the  law  of  Christian  duty  for  all  time. 
Just  so  Noah  was  left  to  learn  the  law  of  intoxi- 
cating wines  ;  Solomon  avows  that  only  by  ex- 
perience could  he  know  it ;  and  Timothy,  under 
Paul's  tuition  for  years,  was  still  learning  the 
Divine  Law  as  to  Wines.  Third,  As  human  vir- 
tue in  the  Brahmin,  the  Greek  and  the  Roman 


320         The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

was  tested  by  rational  faith,  so  the  very  essence 
of  Christian  redemption  is  Divinely  i?nplanted 
faith.  Paul,  late  in  his  apostolate,  defines  faith 
as  consisting'  in  two  elements.  Faith  is,  first, 
"  the  substance  of  things  hoped  for ; "  or  the 
inward  "assurance,"  a  priori,  that  an  end  es- 
sential to  human  welfare  will  be  found  to  have 
means  adequate  to  its  accomplishment  Faith 
is,  second,  "  the  evidence  of  things  not  seen  ;  " 
or  the  gradual  testing,  a  posteriori,  by  continued 
observation,  what  those  adequate  means  are. 
The  great  apostle  illustrates  this  by  a  mere 
glance  at  the  varied  lives  of  men  living  through 
forty  centuries :  Abel,  Noah,  Abraham,  Moses, 
David,  victors  in  spiritual  conquests  down  to  his 
day;  all  of  whom  were  guided  and  led  "by 
faith."  Mankind  in  Isaac's  day  had  discovered 
how  to  obtain  unfermented  wine  by  separating 
the  saccharine  juice  of  the  grape  from  the  albu- 
minous pulp ;  the  Hebrew  patriarchs  called  it 
*'  tirosh  "  (Gen.  xxvii.  28)  ;  the  Egyptians  manu- 
factured it  in  their  upper  country  ;  and  Joseph's 
brethren  found  it  to  produce  an  effect  indicated 
by  the  word  "  shakar,"  or  full-drinking,  as  differ- 
ent from  Noah's  experience  as  was  the  wine  they 
drank  from  that  he  had  made  (Gen.  ix.  21  ;  xliii. 
34).  In  every  age  since,  when  "  faith  "  has  led 
men,  first  the  "  hope "  for  an  unintoxicating 
beverage,  and  second,  the  industry  to  search  for 


spirit  and  Method  of  Agassiz.         321 

it,  that  unfermented  wine  has  been  re-discov- 
ered. To  admit  that  it  can  not  in  our  day  be 
re-discovered,  is  to  admit  that  modern  science 
is  behind  the  ancient.  To  object  to  the  Divine 
appointment  for  man's  spiritual  redemption 
which  makes  the  effort  for  that  re-discovery  a 
duty,  is  to  discard  both  science  and  revelation, 
and  to  dishonor  both  reason  and  faith. 

CONCLUSION. 

The  writer's  task,  prolonged  through  five 
years,  is  at  length  ended.  As  it  was  prompted 
by  irresistible  convictions  of  truth,  it  has  been 
prosecuted  as  a  duty  both  required  and  aided 
by  peculiar  favoring  associations. 

The  first  public  lectures  of  Professor  Agassiz, 
in  Washington,  D.  C,  delivered  before  the 
Smithsonian  Lecture  Hall  was  provided,  were 
in  a  church  audience-room,  where  the  writer 
officiated.  The  earliest  and  latest  utterances 
of  Agassiz  were  those  of  one  seeking  Divine 
law.  His  profound  researches  in  natu  al  his- 
tory were  often  illustrated  from  Aristi  d*^  and 
Pliny  ;  his  special  discoveries  were  sometimes 
quoted  as  re-discoveries  of  Aristot'e's ;  he 
always  alluded  to  laws  of  developinent  as 
Divine  plans  ;  and  when  challenged  ?s  to  this 
expression,  he  exclaimed  in  almost  the  very 
words  of  the  teacher  of  both  Plato  and  Aris- 
14* 


322  The  Divine  Lau  as  to  Wines. 

totle :  "  Why  not  admit  that  Mind  originates 
new  organisms  ?  "  Prompted  by  such  a  guide, 
the  writer  was  directed  in  youth  to  Aristotle 
and  Pliny  as  clear  expounders  of  the  physical 
law  of  what  are  now  styled  "  Spiritual  Manifes' 
tations  ;  "  and  in  later  years  they  revealed  the 
science  whose  mysteries,  now  hidden,  guided 
Grecian  artists. 

When  the  latest  Hebrew  lexicographer,  speci- 
ally accurate  as  a  student  of  natural  science,  was 
found  to  have  defined  the  Hebrew  "  tirosh  "  as 
"  unfermented  wine,"  Pliny's  minute  description 
of  the  mode  of  its  manufacture  gave  the  clue  to 
all  the  labyrinths  of  Biblical  and  classic  litera- 
ture as  it  relates  to  the  Divine  Law  of  Wines. 
Nothing  was  needed  in  following  out  the  clue 
but  patient  toil,  controlled  by  ordinary  balanced 
intelligence,  and  by  a  spirit  of  Christian  candor 
and  charity. 

From  his  earliest  connection  with  the  Smith- 
sonian Institution,  Prof  Joseph  Henry  was  an 
intimate  friend,  and  especially  an  educational 
counselor.  He  was  a  devout  Christian  be- 
liever ;  seeking  harmony  between  the  Divine 
works  and  Word.  He  always  referred  to  great 
forces  in  Nature  as  "  God's  powers  ;  "  and  al- 
luding to  his  own  discoveries,  so  eminently 
practical  in  their  applications,  he  said:  that 
"  Discoverer?  and  inventors  only  availed  them 


Spirit  and  Method  of  Joseph  Henry.    323 

selves  of  God's  power  to  bless  mankind." 
He  often  referred  to  Pliny  and  Aristotle 
as  guides  in  modern  discovery ;  and  his 
celebrated  "  Hints  to  Guide  Explorers  "  were 
anticipated  in  Aristotle's  Problems.  He  lived, 
most  of  all,  to  make  science  aid  in  the  in- 
terpretation of  the  Old  and  New  Testament 
Scriptures.  Two  weeks  before  his  death,  when 
at  eighty  his  associates  and  visitors  saw  only 
absorption  in  his  scientific  work,  in  an  inter- 
view with  his  old  friend,  he  went  over,  at  length, 
the  chief  events  of  his  life,  dwelling  on  one 
work  now  nearly  complete ;  when,  suddenly 
turning,  with  enthusiasm,  he  exclaimed  :  "  When 
that  is  attained,  I  am  ready  to  render  up  my 
account !  "  The  new  turn  of  thought,  thus  in- 
troduced, led  to  many  utterances  like  these : 
**  Man  is  immortal  till  his  mission  is  accom- 
plished. Faith  in  an  overruling  Providence 
is  scientific.  It  is  when  we  can  look  back  over 
the  continuity  of  life  and  of  human  history  that 
we  know  this,  and  see  the  guiding  hand." 
Truth  sought  with  reverence  for  its  Author,  and 
to  promote  the  welfare  of  man,  His  creature,  is 
seldom  sougfht  in  vain. 

He  who  was  "  full  of  truth  and  grace,"  guided 
the  pens  of  Moses  and  Paul,  when  they  wrote 
of  wines.  So  much  of  that  "grace"  ruled  in 
Paul,  the  great  revealer  of  Christian  "truth," 


324  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

that  he  wrote,  "  Whereto  we  have  attained,  let 
us  walk  by  the  same  rule,  let  us  mind  the  same 
thing;  and,  if  in  anything-  ye  be  otherwise 
minded,  God  shall  reveal  even  this  to  you." 
John,  specially  noted  for  "grace,"  said  in  his 
old  age  of  some  who  presented  new  truth : 
"  We  ought  to  receive  such  ;  that  we  might  be 
fellow-helpers  to  the  truth."  If  Christian  men, 
at  the  present  crisis  of  thought  on  the  Divine 
Law  of  Wines,  catch  the  spirit  of  these  veteran 
apostles^  the  truth  will  be  reached,  and  duty 
will  be  met. 

The  three  cuts  present  three  distinct  processes 
in  the  most  ancient  modes  of  preparing  unfer- 
mented  wines,  alluded  to  on  pages  46,  54-57, 
and  described  on  pages  310—313.  They  are 
copied  from  sculptures  in  relief,  richly  painted, 
found  on  the  walls  of  tombs  at  Beni  Hassan,  in 
Upper  Egypt.  They  are  found  in  the  volumes 
of  Sir  Gardner  Wilkinson  and  were  carefully 
studied  by  the  writer  in  February,  1848.  The 
tombs  have,  at  their  entrance,  the  cartouche  of 
Osirtasen  I.,  the  Pharaoh  of  Joseph's  day. 

Fig,   I   presents   the  twist-press,  the  "torcu- 

lar"  of  the  Romans,  and  specially  illustrates  the 

straining  of  the  saccharine    from    albuminous 

'.ingredients  in  grape-juice;  the  cloth  of  the  sack 

preventing  the  pulpy  albumen  from  passing  out 


Fig.  I. 


y/'///^///w/w///A^/^y^y>w///WM/w//'w////A 


Fig.  2. 


Fig.  3. 


(325>l 


326         The  Divine  Law  as  to   Wines. 

with  the  watery,  sugary  fluid.  Fig.  2,  the 
tread-press,  exhibits  the  immediate  drawing  off 
and  storing  of  the  strained  juice,  which  issues 
from  the  upper  spout  of  the  vat  in  which  the 
strainer  is  not  seen,  pours  into  the  upper  tub, 
and  is  thence  dipped  fresh  into  jars  and  stored 
in  the  wine-vault.  Fig.  3  shows  the  mode 
of  preserving  the  stored  grape-juice  ;  the  man  at 
the  left  with  a  large  tureen,  pouring  the  juice 
througli  a  cylindrical  spout  into  the  jars,  while 
the  youth  with  an  oil-scoop,  like  those  now 
found  in  ancient  tombs  in  Egypt,  Cyprus,  and 
Greece,  pours  a  coating  of  oliv^e  oil  on  the  top 
of  the  grape -juice  in  the  jars.  To  this  custom 
of  preserving  must  and  other  fruit-products  by 
oil,  Pliny  and  Columella  allude  ;  Columella  say- 
ing (xii.  19)  that  "before  the  must  is  poured 
into  the  jars  (vasa),"  they  should  be  "  saturated 
with  good  oil." 


SCIENCE 
THE  INTERPRETER  OF  HISTORY 

AS  TO 

UNFERMENTED  WINE. 

When,  in  1840,  the  Rev.  Eli  Smith,  as  the 
interpreter  of  Dr.  Robinson  in  Palestine,  was 
asked,  while  his  Researches  were  going  through 
the  press,  to  give  his  testimony  whether  non- 
intoxicating  wines  existed  in  Palestine,  with  all 
the  earnestness  of  a  true  missionary  he  urged  in 
his  reply  two  requests.  Clearly  perceiving  that 
the  question  of /ix^/  should  not  be  made  to  bear 
on  his  personal  duty  to  practise  and  teach  the 
duty  of  abstinence  from  wines  in  Syria,  and 
again,  that  the  fact  of  the  present  had  little 
bearing  on  the  fact  in  past  history,  he  used  the 
following  language.  Knowing  the  endeared 
relation  of  Dr.  Robinson  to  Prof.  Stuart,  as  the 
teacher  who  had  inspired,  and  to  whom  his 
work  was  to  be  dedicated,  he  wrote :  "I  do 
not  wish  what  I  have  written  to  be  regarded 
as  in  any  way  aimed  against  the  principle  of 

{327) 


328  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

the  American  Temperance  Union."  Knowing, 
moreover,  that  he  had  himself  been  but  a  sub- 
ordinate to  Dr.  Robinson  in  furnishing  one  class 
of  information  necessary  in  his  historic  re- 
searches, and  that  Dr.  Robinson  regarded  Prof. 
Stuart  his  superior  in  the  philological  study 
which  the  question  of  the  past  involved,  he 
added :  "  A  person  who  has  never  been  in 
Palestine  is  as  capable  of  judging  as  myself." 

In  the  revived  discussion,  begun  by  Prof. 
Moses  Stuart  and  prosecuted  by  Profs.  Tayler 
Lewis  and  George  Bush  and  by  Dr.  Wm.  Pat- 
ton,  the  question  whether  unfermented  wines 
can  or  do  exist  is  one  purely  of  fact ;  with  which 
inferences  as  to  personal  duty  are  not  to  be 
confounded.  The  tests  of  chemical  science 
applied  to  wine-making,  found  chiefly  in  the 
south  of  France,  where  the  old  customs  of  Ro- 
man vintage  still  prevail,  and  the  interpretation 
of  Roman  writers  on  wines  found  among  French 
scientists,  must  guide  investigation  and  control 
decision.  In  two  respects  the  time  for  impar- 
tial research  is  most  favorable.  In  England, 
where  the  books  that  first  inspired  Prof.  Stuart's 
investigations  appeared,  the  influence  of  the 
"  Church  Temperance  Society,"  so  nobly  repre- 
sented by  Mr.  Graham,  one  of  ito  secretaries, 
has  enlisted  the  cooperation  of  Conservatives 
and  Liberals  in  politics ;    of  High,  Broad  and 


The  Public  Mind  prepared  for  Truth.     329 

Low  Churchmen  ;  of  eight  out  of  thirty  bishops 
who  are  abstainers,  with  many  that  are  not ; 
whose  influence  has  secured  the  suppression  ot 
beer-shops  and  the  estabhshment  of  coffee- 
houses in  cities  and  towns  throughout  England, 
and  has  arranged  for  the  administration  of  the 
communion  in  wine  free  from  alcohol  in  the  case 
of  all  who  desire  it.  In  the  City  of  New  York, 
too,  the  earnest  supporters  of  the  National 
Temperance  Society  cooperate  with  esteemed 
leaders  in  the  suppression  of  drinking-houses. 
The  secular  press  recognize  the  popular  de- 
mand ;  one  leading  daily  extolling  the  states- 
men of  France,  who  urge  alike  by  example  and 
by  legislation  the  suppression  of  the  use  and 
sale  of  intoxicating  wines  ;  another  following  up 
its  revelations  as  to  the  drugging  of  imported 
wines ;  yet  another  commending  the  effort  to 
furnish  safe  resorts  for  laborers,  obliged  at  their 
noon-day  rest  to  seek  a  winter  shelter  in  beer- 
shops,  where  they  are  forced  to  squander  for 
drink  what  they  would  gladly  save  for  their 
families ;  while  all  commend  the  reform  begun 
at  Washington  by  President  Jackson  in  furnish- 
ing no  intoxicants  to  native  visitors,  but  only 
urge  its  provision,  if  at  all,  for  diplomats  at 
State  dinners.  Certainly,  then,  if  an  unintoxi- 
cating  wine,  kindred  to  the  coffee  sought  for 
laboring  men,  can  be  furnished  for  the  tables 


330  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

where  fashion  rules — if,  indeed,  such  wines  did 
exist  among  the  Romans,  and  were  sought  be- 
cause the  sons  of  families  less  robust  than  the 
sons  of  toil  most  need  the  safeguard — certainly, 
then,  every  father,  every  educator,  every  patriot, 
every  Christian,  will  join  the  search  for  the 
needed  boon. 

THE    TWO    PROPOSITIONS    OF    PROF,   STUART. 

With  logical  precision,  Prof.  Stuart,  after 
careful  consideration  and  research,  laid  down 
these  two  syllogistic  propositions  :  "  Whenever 
the  Scriptures  speak  of  wine  as  a  comfort,  a 
blessing,  or  a  libation  to  God,  and  rank  it  with 
such  articles  as  corn  and  oil,  they  mean,  they 
can  mean,  only  such  wine  as  contained  izo  alco- 
hol that  could  have  a  mischievous  tendency" 
Again  :  "  Facts  show  that  the  ancients  not  only 
preserved  their  wines  unfermented,  but  re- 
garded it  as  of  a  higher  flavor  and  finer  quality 
than  fermented  wine.  There  is  no  ancient  cus- 
tom with  a  better  amount  and  character  of  proof 
than  this."  The  first  proposition  is  a  major 
premise,  assumed  as  a  conclusion  which  the 
common  conviction  of  men  will  allow;  its  testi- 
mony, to  Prof  Stuart's  mind,  being  this:  that 
to  suppose  the  contrary  implies  that  "  God's 
word  and  works  are  at  variance."  The  second 
proposition  is  a  minor  premise :  a  question  of 


Stuart's  two  Propositions.  331 

fact  to  be  established  by  the  tests  of  science, 
which  tests  must  consist  of  two  classes.  First: 
if  the  interpretation  of  ancient  historic  records 
be  so  doubtful  that  assurance  can  not  be  reached, 
the  light  of  modern  chemical  science,  as  it  relates 
to  the  laws  of  fermentation,  must  be  brought 
in  ;  the  direct  test  of  experiment  must  solve  the 
question  whether  grape  juice  can  be  preserved 
permanently  free  from  alcoholic  fermentation, 
and  the  testimonies  of  skillful  wine-makers,  in 
tlie  land  where  wine-making  has  been  an  un- 
interrupted art  since  the  times  of  the  Roman 
writers,  must  be  traced.  All  will  admit  that  the 
satisfactory  decision  as  to  the  first  proposition 
rests  in  part  on  this  first  class  of  testimonies. 
Second :  philological  science,  now  specially  ad- 
vanced, through  the  common  usage  of  succes- 
sive ages,  preserved  in  lexicons  and  in  transla- 
tions of  and  annotations  upon  classic  and  sacred 
writings,  must  be  able  to  demonstrate  the  fact 
that  the  terms  for  products  of  the  grape  in 
the  Hebrew  of  the  Old  Testament  and  the 
Greek  of  the  New  Testament  justify  the  asser- 
tion made  in  Stuart's  first  proposition. 

THE  OBJECTIONS  TO  STUARTS  TWO  PROPOSITIONS. 

One  of  the  earliest  and  ablest  statements 
opposed  to  Prof.  Stuart's  view  appeared  in  the 
Princeton  Review  for  April,  1841  ;  the  article 


332  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

consisting-  of  a  criticism  on  two  essays,  entitled, 
the  one  "  Bacchus,"  and  the  other  "  Anti-Bac- 
chus," called  forth  by  a  prize  of  one  hundred 
sovereigns  offered  in  England ;  the  latter  of 
which  had  been  republished  from  the  English 
edition  by  the  American  Temperance  Union  at 
New  York.  The  article  commends  the  work  of 
Father  Mathew  in  Ireland,  and  of  Rev.  Robert 
Baird,  the  American  apostle,  on  the  Continent 
in  Europe.  It  interprets  the  statements  of 
Roman  writers  on  wines  ably,  yet  without  the 
light  of  modern  French  research  ;  and  it  calls 
out,  for  the  first  time,  the  testimony  of  Rev.  Eli 
Smith  above  cited.  This  early  critique  has  been 
since  followed  by  the  works  cited  in  the  "  Divine 
Law  as  to  Wines"  (pp.  247-259)  up  to  the 
time  of  its  issue,  early  in  1880.  The  following 
important  articles  have  since  that  time  appeared. 

DR.  rich's    support    OF   STUARt's    FIRST   PROPOSI- 
TION. 

It  is  significant  that  the  "  Bibliotheca  Sacra," 
enriched  in  the  past  by  men  like  Stuart  and 
Robinson,  after  publishing  articles  with  testi- 
monies from  missionary  reporters  as  to  modern 
facts  from  1846  to  1869,  has  given  a  hearing  to 
both  sides  in  the  discussion  on  Bible  wines 
during  the  past  year.  In  the  numbers  for  Jan- 
uary, April,  and  October,  1880,  appears  an  essay 


Dr.  Rich  on  Stuart's  First  Premise.     2iZZ 

in  three  parts  from  Dr.  A.  B.  Rich,  whose  former 
writings  have  been  among  the  publications  of 
the  National  Temperance  Society.  Dr.  Rich 
assumes  as  self-evident  the  first  proposition  of 
Stuart,  and  regards  its  assumption  as  justified 
by  that  of  Newton  ;  whose  first  law  of  motion, 
though  it  can  not  be  directly  demonstrated,  if 
denied,  would  involve  a  contradiction  of  all 
instinctive  human  convictions.  His  statement 
is  thus  framed  (Bib.  Sac,  Jan.,  1881,  p.  114): 
"  Here,  then,  is  the  rational  and  righteous  basis 
for  the  discriminating  statutes  of  God.  The 
beverage  that  was  characterized  by  power  to 
produce  a  sensible  stimulation,  a  nervous  excite- 
ment, was  forbidden ;  the  beverage  that  satisfied 
a  natural  appetite,  and  afforded  strength  with- 
out stimulation,  was  commended."  This  propo- 
sition is  sustained  by  two  classes  of  testimonies  : 
first,  that  alcohol  is  not  nutritious  (pp.  100- 
106)  ;  second,  that  the  Hebrews  had  two  classes 
of  wines,  "  the  nutritive  and  the  alcoholic." 
Thirteen  products  of  the  grape  mentioned  in  the 
Old  Testament  are  considered  (pp.  11 5-1 21), 
and  five  classes,  of  cases  coming  under  the 
generic  term  "  yayin "  are  traced  in  the  re- 
mainder of  the  essay.  These  are,  first,  cases 
where  "  yayin  "  is  manifestly  nutritive  (pp.  122- 
129);  second,  where  it  is  probably  nutritive 
(pp.  129-132);  third,  where  it  is  alcoholic  (pp. 


334  "^^^  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

305-312);  fourth,  where  its  nature  is  doubtful 
(pp.  312—314);  fifth,  where  it  is  employed  in 
religious  rites  or  is  abstained  from  for  religious 
reasons  (pp.  314,  315).  His  special  conclusion 
is  thus  stated:  "There  is  no  threatening,  or 
prohibition,  or  visitation  of  judgment,  as  I  can 
remember,  based  on  the  discrimination  between 
an  excessive  and  a  limited  or  temperate  use  (as 
it  is  called)  of  intoxicants."  After  a  review  of 
the  New  Testament,  Dr.  Rich  concludes  with  a 
statement  that  this  conviction  is  in  accordance 
with  the  position  of  Luther  in  the  opening  of 
the  Reformation ;  that  what  is  not  of  God,  and 
in  His  Word,  must  fail. 

DR.   MOORe's    argument    OPPOSING    STUARTS 
PROPOSITIONS. 

In  the  Presbyterian  Review  for  January,  1 88 1 , 
Dr.  Dunlop  Moore  takes  ground  in  his  opening 
paragraph  (p.  79)  against  Stuart's  first  proposi- 
tion ;  while  in  the  second  he  denies  that  any  of 
the  early  Christian  commentators,  or  of  the 
scholars  of  the  Reformation,  sustain  Stuart's 
second  proposition.  This  latter  statement  refers 
to  the  entire  list  of  citations  made  in  the  "Divine 
Law  as  to  Wines"  ;  but,  as  the  writer  does  not 
again  refer  to  this  simple  denial,  there  is  no 
occasion  for  reply.  Proceeding,  then,  to  his 
argument  opposed  to  Stuart's  first  proposition, 


Dr.  Moore  s  Objections  to  Stuarfs  View.  335 

Dr.  Moore  (pp.  80-83)  urges  that  the  Scriptures 
constantly  both  commend  and  condemn  the  same 
thing ;  as  in  their  statements  as  to  the  "  tongue," 
as  to  "knowledge,"  and  as  to  "marriage"; 
while  they  present  diverse  aspects  of  the  char- 
acter of  God  and  of  Christ.  Hence  he  argues 
that  the  same  may  be  true  as  to  their  statements 
about  wines  ;  and  he  proceeds  to  cite  from  the 
Talmud,  from  Pliny,  from  Plato  and  from  Solo- 
mon statements  as  to  wines  which  seem  to 
justify  his  conclusiom.  He  intimates  the  "  un- 
trustworthiness  "  of  the  quotations  from  Pliny  in 
the  "  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines,"  and  he  censures, 
as  "  irreverent  and  reckless,"  Dr.  Fowler's  com- 
ment on  Prov.  xxiii.  29-35,  of  which  he  gives  a 
new  translation,  sustaining  it  by  Scripture  cita- 
tions (pp.  83-87).  He  censures  also  the  "  very 
confident  writers  and  speakers  "  who  at  this  day 
condemn  "  the  old  commentators  and  moralists  " 
who  made  the  distinction  "  between  the  use  and 
abuse  of  wine";  citing  Dr.  Rich's  statement  (Bib. 
Sac,  Apr.  1880,  p.  318),  and  especially  the  com- 
ments of  Lees  and  Burns  in  the  "  Temperance 
Commentary."  He  urges  that  Christ  drank  the 
wine  from  which  John  abstained ;  that  he  made 
wine  at  a  wedding ;  that  he  appointed  intoxi- 
cating wine  for  the  supper :  and  he  criticises 
Lees  and  Burns  on  Luke  xxi.  34,  Eph.  v.  18, 
and  also  Dr.  Rich  on   i  Tim.  iii.  8,  and  v.  23, 


336  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

quoting  Pliny,  Celsus  and  Dioscorides  in  sup- 
port of  his  view  (pp.  87-93).  On  p.  90  he 
quotes  part  only  of  Pliny's  statement  (xxiii.  18) 
as  to  "mustuni"  used  medicinally.  He  proceeds 
then  to  proof  that  "every  kind"  of  "yayin,"  or 
wine,  "known  in  Palestine"  might  be  used  "by 
the  pious  Israelites."  He  cites  Neh.  v.  18,  19 
as  ancient  proof;  he  quotes  the  report  brought 
in  1878  by  Rev.  Wm.  Taylor  from  missionaries 
in  Palestine,  and  the  written  statement  in  May, 
1875,  of  American  and  British  missionaries  in 
Syria  to  this  effect:  "We  have  never  seen  or 
heard  of  an  unfermented  wine";  and  he  severely 
censures  the  writers  of  "  The  Wines  of  the 
Bible,"  and  of  "  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines," 
as  having  incorrectly  stated  the  facts  (pp.  93- 
97).  He  intimates  (in  referring  to  the  state- 
ment in  the  latter  volume  that  the  best  Arabic 
lexicographers  define  ''sherbets"  as  "wine") 
that  the  "little  learning"  of  the  writer  mis- 
guided him ;  and  that  due  credit  had  not  been 
given  to  the  statements  of  the  missionaries 
whose  testimonies  were  presented  in  America 
from  1846  to  1869,  and  in  Scotland  in  i875-'6 
(pp.  97-100).  Stating  his  conclusion  that  "  the 
question  of  modern  wines  is  thus  disposed  of," 
Dr.  Moore  proceeds  to  citations  and  transla- 
tions, especially  from  the  Roman  writers  "  de 
Re  Rustica,"  or  on  Agriculture,  and  from  Pliny's 


Dr.  Moore  s  Version  of  Roman  Writers,  ^^y 

Natural  History  ;  which  he  thinks  fail  to  sustain 
the  existence  of  "  unfermented  wines  "  in  the 
time  of  Christ  and  of  His  apostles.  He  insists, 
rightly,  on  Pliny,  B.  xiv.,  c.  7,  that  wine  is  com- 
mended in  its  medicinal  uses  (p.  loi)  ;  he  criti- 
cises Dr.  Lees'  interpretation  of  B.  xiv.,  c.  1 1  on 
the  conversion  of  must  into  wine  (p.  loi)  ;  he 
cites  Varro,  B.  i.,  c.  65,  as  showing  that  must, 
by  fermentation,  is  converted  into  wine  (p.  102)  ; 
and  he  quotes  (p.  103)  Pliny,  B.  xiv.,  c.  19,  20, 
condemning  Dr.  Laurie  (Bib.  Sac,  xxvi.,  p.  166) 
for  omitting  "  que  ";  and  he  insists  that  this,  like 
the  other  passages  cited,  shows  that  the  Ro- 
mans did  not  class  any  form  of  "  must"  among 
"  wines."  He  alludes  to,  but  does  not  quote, 
Cato,  c.  120,  and  Columella,  B.  xii.  c.  29,  com- 
paring them  with  Pliny,  B.  xiv.,  c.  19  ;  and,  while 
admitting  that  the  grape-juice  preserved  as  de- 
scribed remained  "must,"  though  "  no^  longer 
than  a  year"  he  censures  the  writer  of  the 
"  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines  "  for  intimating  that 
this  "  must  "  was  classed  as  a  "  wine  "  (pp.  103- 
4).  He  refers  to  the  "protropum,"  Pliny,  B. 
xiv.,  c.  2  (p.  104)  as  not  wine;  to  the  "  mur- 
rhina"  or  "  murrata,"  as  classed  by  Pliny,  "not 
as  among  wines  (vina),  but  among  sweets 
(dulcia)"  ;  and  he  argues  that  "  sobriam,"  in  the 
mention  of  "  inerticula,"  Pliny,  B.  xiv.,  4,  is  used 
by  the  writers,  "  not  of  the  wine,  but  of  the 
15 


S^S  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

jjrape"  from  which  it  was  made  (pp.  104-5) 
He  criticises  the  citation  by  Rev.  Wm.  T. 
Thayer,  in  his  "  Communion  Wine,"  of  Aris- 
totle, Meteor,  B.  iv.,  c.  9 ;  and  cites  Wilson's 
"  Wines  of  the  Bible,"  as  showing  "  that  the 
sweet  wine"  did  not  deserve  "to  be  called 
wine ''  until  it  had  undergone  a  partial  fermen- 
tation ;  and  also  that  it  is  "  only  in  a  compara- 
tive sense,  and  not  absolutely,  his  statement  as 
to  its  non-intoxicatinof  character  is  to  be  taken  " 
(p.  106).  He  censures  Rev.  C.  H.  Fowler  for 
his  statement  in  his  "Wines  of  the  Bible"  that 
"boiled  wines"  were  unintoxicating;  and  sets 
over  against  his  allusion  to  Horace's  mention  of 
the  Lesbian  wine  (Carm.,  L.  i.,  17)  as  "inno- 
cens "  the  caution  of  Clement  to  Christians 
(Paed.  B.  ii.,  c.  2)  as  to  "  the  pleasant-breathing 
Lesbian"  (pp.  T06-108).  He  criticises  the  view 
of  the  effect  of  the  "  filter,"  Pliny,  B.  xxiii.,  c.  24, 
taken  by  the  Rev.  B.  Parsons  in  his  "  Anti- 
Bacchus  "  and  in  his  "  The  Wine  Question 
Settled,"  as  also  the  same  view  taken  in  the 
Temperance  Commentary ;  and  he  cites  the 
following  disconnected  sentence  from  Berzelius' 
"  Traits  de  Chimie,"  quoted  in  the  Pri7iceion  Re- 
view, April,  1841,  p.  298,  to  this  effect:  "It  is 
not  until  the  fermentation  is  considerably  ad- 
vanced that  the  gluten  is  precipitated  in  such 
quantity  that  it  can  be  so  separated  by  the  filter 


Dr.  Moore  s  Hebrew  and  Greek  Criticisms.  339 

as  to  prevent  entirely  the  further  fermentation  of 
the  liquor  "  (p.  108).  He  cites  (pp.  no,  in)  Co- 
lumella, B.  xii.,  c.  2^,  to  show  that "  vinum  "  and 
"  mustum  "  are  in  Latin  usage  distinct ;  he  also 
cites  Columella,  xii.,  25  and  29,  preceding  and 
following,  as  sustaining  this  view;  and  in  a  note 
makes  this  only  allusion  to  the  Hebrew  "  tirosh  " 
and  the  Greek  "  gleukos  ":  "  In  summer  weather, 
in  a  very  few  hours  a  considerable  quantity  of 
alcohol  is  formed  in  the  purest  grape-juice  if 
exposed  to  the  air.  Accordingly,  Tirosh,  must, 
or  new  wine,  is  treated  in  the  Old  Testament  as 
an  intoxicant  (Hos.  iv.  11),  and  so  is  the  corre- 
sponding Greek  word  Gleukos  in  the  New  Tes- 
tament (Acts  ii.  13)."  He  criticises  Dr.  Lees' 
statement  in  his  "  Wines,  Ancient  and  Modern," 
whose  comment  on  Columella  xii.,  27,  is  to  this 
effect :  "  The  grapes  were  spread  out  to  the 
heat  of  the  sun  long  enough  to  thicken  the  juice 
to  the  degree  known  to  produce  fermentation  "; 
and  he  cites  the  supposed  counter-testimony  of 
Redding  on  Wines,  p.  55 :  "  Grapes  were  an- 
ciently trodden,  after  being  exposed  on  a  level 
floor  to  the  action  of  the  solar  rays  for  ten  days, 
and  were  then  placed  in  the  shade  for  five  days 
more,  in  order  to  mature  the  saccharine  matter. 
This  practice  is  still  followed  in  certain  cases  in 
one  or  two  of  the  islands  of  the  Greek  Archi- 
pelago ;  at  St.  Lucar,  in  Spain  ;  in  Italy,  at  least 


340  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

in  Calabria ;  and  in  a  few  of  the  northeastern 
departments  of  France.  The  fermentation  is 
faciHtated  greatly  by  this  process."  He  cites 
also  Rev.  Eli  Smith's  statement  (Bib.  Sac, 
Jan.,  1869),  which  he  deems  to  the  same  effect. 
He  finally  (p.  112)  criticises  the  use  made  of 
Herodotus'  statement  (L.  ii.,  c.  Ty"])  that  "oinos 
ampelinos  "  was  used  by  the  priests  of  Egypt, 
and  contends  that  it  indicates  simply  "  wine  of 
the  vine,"  as  does  "  oinos  ex  kritheon  "  (ii.,  ']'/) 
wine  of  barley,  and  "  oinos  phoinikeios  "  (ii.,  86) 
palm-wine. 

Each  of  these  citations,  interpretations,  criti- 
cisms, and  inferences  will  be  noticed  in  its  proper 
connection  in  presenting  the  scientific,  philo- 
logical, and  historical  testimonies  which  estab- 
lish the  second  proposition  of  Stuart,  and  thus 
demonstrate  his  first  proposition. 

HORACE    BUMSTEAD's    ARGUMENT    AS    TO    STUART's 
PROPOSITIONS. 

In  the  Bibliotheca  Sacra  for  January,  1881, 
appears  a  conservative  article  by  Horace  Bum- 
stead,  now  issued  in  a  pamphlet.  In  a  fair 
review  of  the  latest  statements  of  Drs.  Parker, 
Anstie,  Hammond,  Richardson,  Binz,  and  others, 
he  regards  their  combined  authority  as  indi- 
cating that,  though  concentrated  alcohol  is  a 
poison,  in  solution  it  creates  heat  by  decompo- 


H.  Bumstead  on  the  Law  of  Wines.     341 

sition  in  the  human  system,  and  is  in  special 
cases  of  medicinal  value.  Reviewing  Grecian  and 
Hebrew  wines,. he  distinguishes  between  "gleu- 
kos  "  as  must,  "  oinos  glukos  "  as  in  itself  sweet, 
and  "  oinos  edus "  as  not-acid ;  he  thinks 
'*  tirosh  "  not  a  beverage,  and  admits  that  "ya- 
yin  "  was  generic ;  and  he  accepts  the  ancient 
interpretation,  instead  of  Alford's,  of  Acts  ii.  13, 
that  "gleukos"  was  not  intoxicating.  He 
argues  that  as  "rain,"  though  a  blessing,  was 
a  curse  in  excess,  so  with  wine ;  he  thinks  that 
there  is  an  argument  in  the  apparent  fact,  indi- 
cated in  the  cases  of  Samson,  Samuel,  and  John, 
that  abstainers,  as  a  rule,  are  not  so  for  life  ;  but 
states  as  his  conclusion  these  four  principles  as 
to  the  duty  of  abstinence :  First,  abstinence  is 
a  duty  as  to  excess  in  quantity  or  quality  ; 
second,  in  men  unable  to  drink  with  modera- 
tion ;  third,  in  those  whose  example  might 
entice  the  physically  weak ;  fourth,  in  those 
who  might  grieve  the  morally  conscientious. 
Certainly  there  is  a  common  recognition  of 
truth,  and  a  common  ground  of  cooperation, 
here  indicated. 

STUDIES    THAT  LED    TO    THE  "  DIVINE    LAW  AS    TO 
WINES." 

The  statement  which  follows  seems  called  for 
by  criticisms  passed  on  this  latest  issue  of  the 


342  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

National  Temperance  Society.  Familiar  in 
boyhood  with  Gill's  Talmudic  citations,  with 
Jahn's  Hebrew  Archaeology,  and  like  works, 
having"  received  a  special  training  for  seven 
years  under  Dr.  Hackett  in  Latin,  Greek,  and 
Hebrew,  five  years  were  gi-ven  to  special  prep- 
aration for  a  journey  in  the  East,  made  in  the 
years  1847-8.  The  works  on  Egypt  of  Napo- 
leon's savants,  and  of  Champollion,  Rossellini, 
and  Wilkinson  were  made  familiar ;  the  French, 
Italian,  and  Arabic  languages  were  studied  for 
ordinary  intercourse ;  and  special  letters  from 
Secretary  Marcy  and  President  Polk  gave  intro- 
duction to  French  and  English  as  well  as  to 
American  authorities,  which  secured  access  to 
varied  sources  of  information.  Six  months  were 
passed  between  Alexandria  and  Beyroot ;  an 
entire  week  being  given  to  Thebes  alone,  where 
Lepsius  had  just  opened  new  tombs.  Com- 
panions of  high  official  station,  such  as  the 
Comte  de  Gasparin,  were  associates,  some- 
times for  weeks ;  and  many  special  fields  have 
since  been  reviewed. 

Intercourse  with  eminent  statesmen,  and  the 
duty  of  instruction  to  law  students  in  ethics, 
impressed  the  rule  of  seeking  experts  as  the 
interpreters'  of  records  ;  and  hence  the  resort  to 
German  and  French  authorities  in  forming  a 
judgment  as  to  the  meaning  of  terms  relating  to 


Chemical  Test  of  UnferTnented  Wine.     343 

wines  and  their  preparation ;  which  terms  are 
found  in  the  succession  of  tongues  that 
serve  as  so  many  Hnks  in  preserving  and  ex- 
plaining ancient  records  by  modern  traditions. 
Associated  in  educational  work,  partly  as  col- 
leagues and  partly  as  advisers,  with  men  like 
Profs.  Gale,  Page,  and  Henry,  the  habit  of 
thorough  collation  of  facts,  as  well  as  of  testing 
conclusions  by  experiment,  was  formed.  Both 
these  rules  of  study  were  called  into  requisition 
in  the  research  required  to  find  that  harmony 
among  witnesses  as  to  truth  which  can  be  traced 
in  all  preserved  records  which  treat  of  wines. 

SCIENTIFIC    TEST    OF   THE    LAW    OF   UNFERMENTED 
WINES. 

Aided  by  the  scientific  collections  of  the  Smith- 
sonian Institution  and  of  the  Astor  Library,  the 
laws  of  fermentation  were  drawn  out,  and  after- 
wards were  submitted  to  Dr.  L.  D.  Gale,  Pro- 
fessor of  Chemistry  at  the  University  of  the  City 
of  New  York  and  Prof  Morse's  electrician  during 
the  years  1833  to  1839,  and  Examiner  of  Patents 
at  Washington,  D.  C,  from  1847  ;  whose  state- 
ment is  as  follows  :  "  I  have  examined  with  care 
Dr.  Samson's  *  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines.'  The 
laws  of  alcoholic  fermentation  in  wine-making, 
as  stated  by  chemists,  are  correctly  presented. 
The  view  that  the  fermenting  element  is  in  the 


344  "^^^  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

pulp,  not  in  the  saccharine  juice  of  the  grape,  is 
accordant  with  fact ;  and  the  conclusion  that,  if 
entirely  separated,  alcoholic  ferment  would  not 
occur,  is  legitimate.  The  fact  that  the  Romans, 
before  Christ's  day,  and  that  the  Egyptians, 
before  Moses  wrote,  had,  by  straining  the  juice 
of  the  grape,  obtained  an  unfermented  wine, 
seems  to  be  established  by  historic  citations." 

To  test  both  the  Egyptian  and  Roman 
methods,  in  October,  1879,  two  phials  were 
filled  with  juice  of  Catawba  grapes,  carefully 
strained  fr-om  the  pulp.  One  was  covered  with 
a  film  of  olive-oil,  and  set  away  in  a  closet ;  and 
the  other  was  corked  and  sealed,  and  then  kept 
forty  days  in  cold  water.  The  sealing  of  the 
latter  was  left  to  another  hand  ;  a  slight  por- 
tion of  air  remained  between  the  cork  and  the 
juice,  as  the  cork  was  not  forced  home  in  the 
neck  of  the  phial ;  and  thus,  fortunately  for 
the  double  test,  the  demonstration  of  two  prin- 
ciples noted  by  French  chemists  followed.  Had 
the  isolation  from  air  been  equally  perfect  in 
each  case,  the  result  should  have  been  precisely 
the  same,  since  the  saccharine  juice  in  both 
phials  was  from  the  same  cluster,  and  alike 
separated  from  the  pulp ;  while,  moreover,  the 
second,  during  the  first  forty  days,  was  kept 
below  the  fermenting  temperature  by  cold  water 
On  the  31st  January,  1881,  one  year  and  four 


Analysis  of  Preserved  Grape-Juice.      345 

months  from  the  time  of  preparation,  the  two 
bottles  were  placed  in  the  hands  of  Dr.  Charles 
S.  Allen,  a  graduate,  in  1874,  from  the  Columbia 
College  School  of  Mines  ;  afterwards  appointed 
Professor  of  Chemistry  at  Lewisburg  Univer- 
sity, Penn.,  on  the  recommendation  of  Dr.  C.  F. 
Chandler,  Dean,  and  of  Prof.  C.  A.  Joy,  Ph.D., 
of  the  School  of  Mines  ;  and  now  a  medical 
practitioner  in  New  York  City.  Meanwhile, 
like  that  of  the  ancient  Romans  and  modern 
French  hereafter  described,  the  juice  retained 
its  original  clear  crystal  color  and  consistency, 
with  a  slight  sediment.  The  result  of  analysis 
is  stated  in  the  following  note : 

N,W.  cor.  85th  St.  and  4th  Ave.,  New  York, 
February  12,  1 88 1. 
Dr.  G.  W.  Samson. 

Dear  Sir  : 
I  wish  to  certify  that  I  have  tested  two  specimens  of  grape- 
juice,  which  you  left  with  me,  for  alcohol.  The  juice  in  one  of 
the  bottles  was  covered  with  oil ;  and  the  other  bottle,  which 
contained  the  same,  had  been  sealed  with  wax.  I  wish  to  state, 
also,  that  in  the  wax-sealed  bottle  the  cork,  being  too  large,  was 
but  -half  in  the  neck  of  the  bottle,  and  that  the  sealing  was  im- 
perfect ;  and  that  there  was  about  half  an  inch  of  air  in  this  bottle 
above  the  juice. 

I  did  not  find  any  alcohol  present  in  the  juice  which  was 
covered  with  oil ;  but  the  juice  in  the  wax-sealed  bottle  was  found 
to  contain  a  little  alcohol,  the  per  cent,  of  which  I  did  not  deter- 
mine. The  test  employed  was  prepared  by  E.  W.  Davy  ;  which 
test  detects  the  presence  of  one-tenth  of  one,  per  cent,  of  alcohol. 
I  am  yours  truly, 

Chas.  S.  Allen,  Ph.B.,  M.D. 

IS* 


34^  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

TESTIMONY  OF  PASTEUR    ON  ARRESTING    FERMENT. 

During"  the  progress  of  the  test  thus  described, 
Prof.  E.  Waller,  Ph.D.,  of  the  School  of  Mines, 
who  was  consulted,  directed  attention  to  the 
recently  published  experiments  of  Pasteur  on 
fermentation,  as  substantiating-  the  general 
theory  on  which  the  experiment  was  made. 
The  work,  in  the  Astor  Library,  is  entitled, 
"Etudes  sur  la  Biere,"  etc.,  "avec  une  Theorie 
Nouvelle  de  la  Fermentation.  Par  M.  L.  Pas- 
teur. Paris,  1876."  The  author  was  led  to  the 
publication,  after  years  of  practical  study  on 
behalf  of  German  brewers  and  of  French  vint- 
ners, in  search  of  methods  for  arresting  "  fer- 
ments de  maladie,"  or  diseased,  as  opposed  to 
healthful  ferment ;  so  likely  to  occur  in  the 
manufacture  of  beers,  as  also  in  "  must "  made 
into  wine  during  the  early,  or  summer  vintage. 
His  theory  of  fermentation  is  substantially  this, 
as  derived  from  careful  tests :  that  the  micro- 
scopic spores  of  plant  organisms  which  float  in 
the  air  and  fall  upon  substances  subject  to  fer- 
mentation, which  he  found  to  abound  in  water 
in  which  the  outside  skin  of  grape-clusters  had 
been  washed,  may  be  excluded  by  shutting  off 
contact  with  the  air ;  or  they  may  have  their 
fructifying  powers  in  the  fermenting  substance 
destroyed  by  heat.     The  special  tests  used  by 


Pasteur  s  Confirmatory  Experiments.     347 

Pasteur,  so  far  as  they  bear  on  the  possibility 
of  obtaining  unfermented  wine,  are  found  in 
sect.  III.,  pp.  53-57.  Pasteur  prepared  forty 
small  glass  bulbs  with  minute  projecting  tubes  ; 
and,  having  heated  the  bulbs  so  as  to  expel 
floating  "  corpuscules  organises,"  or  microscopic 
spores,  he  inserted  the  open  ends  of  the  tubes, 
through  the  skin  of  the  well-ripened  grapes, 
into  the  saccharine  juice  ;  so  that  when  the  bulbs 
cooled  they  sucked  in  saccharine  juice  sufficient 
to  half  fill  them,  while  the  air,  thus  reduced  in 
quantity  by  cooling,  was  free  from  plant-germs. 
With  this  collection  of  "gouttes  de  jus  inte- 
fieur,"  styled  "mout  de  raisin  filtre,  parfaite- 
ment  limpide,"  four  classes  of  experiments  were 
then  tiied,  whose  nature  is  sufficiently  indicated 
by  P.'\i.teur's  statement  of  the  results.  First: 
"  Grapt.-must  (le  mo{it  de  raisin)  never  ferments 
in  contact  with  air  deprived  of  the  germs  which 
are  found  suspended  in  it."  Second :  "  Grape- 
must  boiled  (cuit)  ferments  when  there  is  intro- 
duced into  it  a  very  little  quantity  of  wash- 
water  from  the  surface  of  the  grape-berries 
(d'eau  de  lavage  de  la  surface  de  grains  de 
raisins").  Third:  "Grape-must  does  not  fer- 
ment after  there  has  been  introduced  into  it  that 
wash-water  raised  to  the  temperature  of  boiling 
and  then  cooled."  Fourth  :  "  Grape-must  does 
not  ferment  when  there  is  introduced  a  very 


348  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

small  quantity  of  the  interior  juice  of  the  grape- 
berry  (du  sue  interieur  d'un  grain  de  raisin"). 
In  this  connection,  Pasteur  refers  for  confirma- 
tion to  experiments  reported  to  the  "  Academic 
des  Sciences,"  and  recorded  in  the  "  Comptes 
Rendus,  t.  Ixiii.,  p.  1425,  1871  ";  also  to  this 
statement  of  Gay  Lussac  in  the  "Annales  de 
Chimie,  t.  Ixxvi.,  p.  245,"  reported  "  Dec.  3, 
1810":  "  Je  conclus  que  la  fermentation  du 
mout  de  raisin  ne  peut  commencer  sans  le 
secours  de  gaz  oxigene  "  :  I  conclude  that  the 
fermentation  of  grape-must  can  not  commence 
without  the  aid  of  oxygen  gas. 

BERZELIUS,  THE    SWEDISH    CHEMIST,  IN  HARMONY. 

The  Swedish  chemist  Berzelius,  who  was; 
eminent  from  1806  to  his  death  in  1848,  the 
author  of  the  modern  symbolic  nomenclature  of 
chemistry,  showed  his  truly  scientific  spirit  by 
his  appreciation  of  the  discoveries  of  others. 
His  volumes,  completed  from  1806  to  1818, 
were  soon  translated  into  German,  French,  and 
other  languages.  The  volume  cited  in  the 
Princeton  Review  of  April,  1841,  is  the  first 
French  edition  ;  the  second  French  edition,  with 
the  author's  special  approval,  having  been  pub- 
lished at  Paris  in  1845.  Besides  several  suc- 
cessive editions  of  his  great  work,  Berzelius 
contributed  for  many  years,  in  the  French  An- 


Berzelius^  Accordant  Statements.        349 

nual  Report  on  the  Progress  of  the  Sciences, 
the  leading  articles  on  Physics  and  Chemistry. 
The  citation  in  the  Princeton  Review  of  1841,  a 
part  of  which  Dr.  Moore  translates,  though  the 
passage,  for  some  reason,  is  omitted  in  later 
editions  of  Berzelius,  is  in  harmony  with  modern 
progress,  and  with  the  statements  of  Roman 
writers,  as  to  the  effects  of  filtration  ;  while  later 
statements  of  Berzelius  sustain  Pasteur's  cita- 
tion from  Gay  Lussac.  The  citation  of  the 
Princeton  Review  is  as  follows  :  '*  Si  I'on  filtre 
la  liqueur  qui  fermente  quand  elle  est  arriv^e  ^ 
un  certain  point,  par  exemple  au  quart  de 
r^poque  de  la  fermentation,  le  liquid  transpa- 
rente,  qui  passe  au  travers  du  filtre,  ne  fermente 
pas;  mais  au  bout  de  quelque  temps,  il  recom- 
mence ^  se  troubler  et  ^  fermenter,  quoique 
plus  lentement  qu'auparavant.  Si  Ton  filtre  la 
liqueur  quand  I'operation  est  plus  avancd,  la  fer- 
mentation s'arrete  completement."  "  If  the  liquor 
which  is  fermentinof  be  filtered  when  it  has 
arrived  at  a  certain  point,  for  example  at  a 
quarter  of  the  time  of  fermentation,  the  trans- 
parent liquid  which  passes  through  the  filter 
does  not  ferment ;  but  at  the  end  of  some  time 
it  begins  again  to  be  disturbed  and  to  ferment, 
although  more  gently  than  before.  If  the  liquor 
is  filtered  when  the  operation  is  more  advanced 
the  fermentation  is  completely  arrested."     It  is 


350  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

manif'ist  that  these  facts  are  thus  estabHshed: 
first,  that  grape-juice,  when  one-fourth  fer- 
mented, may  be  made  a  transparent  liquid  by 
the  straining-  out  of  the  fermenting  pulp ;  and, 
second,  that  the  ferment  may  h^  entirely  arrested 
if  the  ferment  be  allowed  to  proceed  beyond 
one-fourth.  Inasmuch  as  by  boltling  at  these 
different  stages  the  amount  of  alcohol  may  be 
reduced  to  any  extent  desired  by  the  wine- 
maker,  it  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that  it  may 
be  wholly  arrested  if  bottled  and  guarded  before 
the  first  ferment  begins.  The  doubt  as  to  this 
inference  is  expressed  by  the  following  sentence ; 
which  alone  is  quoted  by  Dr.  Moore:  "En 
outre,  il  resulte  de  I'experience  dont  je  viens  de 
parler,  que  la  portion  precipit^e  du  gluten  est 
seule  propre  a  develloper  la  fermentation  ;  et  si 
tout  ce  qui  pouvait  etre  precipit^  I'a^t^  avant  fil- 
tration, le  Sucre  qui  reste  dans  la  liqueur  n'est 
plus  detruit."  "  Further,  it  results  from  the  ex- 
periment of  which  I  have  just  spoken  that  the 
precipitated  portion  of  the  gluten  is  alone  suited 
to  develop  fermentation ;  and  if  all  that  which 
could  be  precipitated  has  been  before  filtration, 
the  sugar  which  remains  in  the  liquor  is  no 
longer  destroyed."  Certainly  Berzelius  was 
approaching  the  result  attained  by  Pasteur,  for 
none  but  an  expert  could  translate  his  language 
without  having  had  the  experience  it  implies. 


Advancing  Views  of  Berzelius.         351 

The  philological,  as  well  as  scientific  student 
should  observe  Berzelius'  distinction  between 
"  troubler  "  and  "  fermenter  ";  whose  importance 
will  be  hereafter  noted. 

These  early  results  attained  by  Berzelius 
were  followed  up  to  yet  advanced  conclusions. 
In  his  "Reports"  for  1840,  Berzelius  maintained 
his  own  theory  of  fermentation,  called  in  the  ad- 
mirable analysis  of  Dr.  Carpenter,  the  "contact" 
theory  as  against  the  "  physical,"  or  molecular 
theory,  advocated  by  Liebig  in  1839;  both  of 
which  are  supplanted  by  the  "  physiological  " 
theory  of  Helmholtz  brought  out  in  1843,  which 
led  on  to  the  "  germ  "  theory  of  Pasteur,  first 
presented  about  1863,  and  newly  illustrated  in 
his  work,  above  cited,  in  1876.  In  his  reports 
for  1842,  Berzelius,  in  noticing  experiments  of 
Saussure  on  vinous  fermentation,  states  :  "  On 
sait  d'  apr^s  des  experiences  de  M.  Gay  Lussac 
qu'un  sue  vegetal  sucr6  n'entre  pas  en  fermen- 
tation quand  il  est  priv^  du  contact  de  I'air ; 
que  la  quantity  d'air  necessaire  pour  mettre  la 
fermentation  au  train  est  tr^s  petite ;  et  qu'une 
fois  la  fermentation  commence  elle  continue  sans 
interruption."  "  It  has  been  known  since  the  ex- 
periments of  Mr.  Gay  Lussac  that  a  sugary  veg- 
etable juice  does  not  enter  upon  fermentation 
when  it  is  deprived  of  contact  with  the  air ;  that 
the  quantity  of  air  necessary  to  put  fermentation 


352  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

in  train  is  very  little ;  and  when  once  fermenta- 
tion commences  it  continues  without  interrup- 
tion." Berzelius  then  goes  on  to  state  that  the 
experiments  of  M.  de  Saussure  show  "  that  the 
juice  of  the  grape  absorbs  under  the  press  the 
quantity  of  air  necessary  to  determine  fermen- 
tation." 

It  is  manifest  that  the  Swedish  chemist,  resid- 
ing generally  at  Stockholm,  dependent  on  men 
of  science  in  wine  regions  for  cooperation  in  his 
own  experiments,  never  allowed  the  weakness 
of  self-sufficiency,  so  lamented  by  Bacon  as  an 
impediment  to  the  progress  of  science,  to  lead 
him  to  adhere  to  theories  superseded  by  the 
observations  of  men  in  more  favorable  fields. 
Had  he  been  permitted  the  privilege  of  Pasteur, 
he  might  have  reached  his  results.  In  fact,  like 
Pancoucke,  he  might  have  actually  found  per- 
petuated among  the  descendants  of  the  old  Ro- 
mans in  the  South  of  France  hereditary  arts  of 
wine-making  that  would  have  led  him  back  to 
old  Roman  wines  known  in  the  palmy  days  of 
Italian  vine-growing ;  wine  sought  from  motives 
of  Roman  virtue  by  men  like  Cato  and  Colu- 
mella, but  wines  which  amid  imperial  luxury, 
even  in  Pliny's  day,  had  begun  to  degenerate 
and  become  unknown. 


Unfermented  Wines  now  in  S,  France.     353 

OLD  ROMAN  UNFERMENTED  WINES  NOW  IN  THE 
SOUTH  OF  FRANCE. 

Some  of  the  French  medical  writers  have 
brought  out  the  fact  that  unfermented  wines  are 
still  made  at  special  localities  in  the  South  of 
France,  where  old  Roman  words  as  well  as  arts 
still  prevail.  In  the  "  Dictionnaire  des  Sciences 
Medicales,"  presenting-  the  researches  of  a  soci-  • 
ety  of  sixty-one  physicists  and  physicians,  includ- 
ing Cuvier,  Bayle,  Gall,  R.  Collard,  etc.,  col- 
lected by  Pancoucke,  and  filling  sixty  volumes, 
published  at  Paris  in  1822,  there  is  found  under 
the  word  •'  Vin  "  this  statement :  "  On  donne  le 
nom  de  vins  mueis,  ou  mutds,  ^  ceux  qui  sont 
faits  avec  du  mout,  dont  on  a  fait  emp^ch^,  non 
seulement  la  premiere  fermentation,  mais  encore 
la  seconde.  Pour  obtenir  ces  vins  on  a  soin,  k 
mesure  que  la  moiit  coule  du  pressoir,  d'en 
mettre  une  petite  quantity  dans  les  barriques 
oil  Ton  fait  bruler  du  soufre.  Dans  quelques-uns 
de  nos  provinces  meridionales,  oil  ces  vins  se 
preparent,  on  y  ajoute  du  sucre  brut,  et  on 
brasse  le  tout  k  force  de  bras,  ajoutant  nouveau 
moiit  et  de  la  vapeur  sulfureuse,  jusqu'^  ce  que 
la  liqueur  ne  donne  aucune  signe  de  fermenta- 
tion ;  on  y  revient  ^  plusieurs  reprises  et  k 
chaque  on  diminue  la  dose  de  soufre  ;  quand  la 
liqueur  est  bien  repos^e,  on  la  soutire  ;  elle  de 


354  T^^^  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

vient  claire,  limpide,  et  brilliante  comme  de  I'eau 
de  vie.  Cette  merchandise  est  expediee  dans 
les  pays  froids  oil  on  sert  de  corriger  I'acidit^ 
des  vins  trop  verts,  k  fabriquer  des  vins  de  toute 
piece,  et  ^  masquer  le  goiit  acre  et  insupporta- 
ble des  eaus-de-vie  de  grains  et  de  pommes- 
de-terre  ;  ainsi  que  je  I'ai  vue  a  Strasbourg. 
C'est  ^  tort  qu'on  lui  a  donn6  le  nom  de  vin 
■X  niuet,  puis  qu'il  lui  manque  le  principe  spiritueux 
qui  constitue  I'essence  de  vin,  et  Ton  doit  plus 
proprement  la  designer  sous  celui  de  moilt  cla- 
rifid.  Du  reste,  ce  mout  ne  conserve  pas  tou- 
jours  la  douceur  ;  car,  des  que  les  chaleurs  du 
printemps  se  font  sentir,  il  commence  a  fermen- 
ter,  il  perd  sa  douceur,  et  devient  un  veritable 
vin."  The  interest  connected  with  this  product, 
still  called  by  a  Roman  name,  the  mistake  as  to 
its  nature  and  history  indicated  in  the  allusion 
in  the  Princeton  Review  for  April,  1841,  justifies 
the  insertion  of  the  entire  statement,  which  may 
be  thus  rendered  into  English  :  "  The  name  of 
dutnb,  or  mute  wines,  is  given  to  those  which 
are  made  from  must  whose  first  as  well  as  sec- 
ond fermentation  has  been  prevented.  In  order 
to  obtain  these  wines,  care  is  taken,  as  the  must 
flows  from  the  press,  to  place  a  small  quantity 
of  it  in  casks  in  whi(  h  sulphur  has  been  burned. 
In  some  of  our  southern  provinces,  where  these 
wines  are  prepared,  raw  sugar  is  added,  and  it 


The  First  Fermentation  Prevented.      355 

is  stirred  by  hand,  while  new  must  and  sulphur 
vapor  is  added,  until  the  liquor  gives  no  sign  of 
fermentation  ;  the  process  is  repeated,  and  at 
each  the  dose  of  sulphur  is  diminished  ;  when 
the  liquor  is  well  settled  they  draw  it  off;  it  be- 
comes clear,  transparent,  and  sparkling,  like 
brandy.  This  article  of  trade  is  forwarded  to 
cold  countries,  where  it  serves  to  correct  the 
acidity  of  wines  too  raw,  to  manufacture  wines 
in  every  style  of  putting  up,  and  to  mask  the 
sharp  and  pungent  taste  of  corn  and  potato- 
brandies,  as  I  have  seen  at  Strasbourg.  It  is 
wrong  to  have  given  to  it  the  name  dumb  wzney 
since  there  is  wanting  in  it  the  spirituous  prin- 
ciple which  constitutes  the  essence  of  wine ;  and 
it  ought  properly  to  be  designated  under  the 
name  of  clarified  must.  Besides,  this  must  does 
not  preserve  always  its  sweetness  ;  for,  when 
the  heat  of  spring  makes  itself  felt,  it  begins  to 
ferment,  it  loses  its  sweetness,  and  it  becomes 
a  veritable  wine."  The  important  points,  Hnk- 
ing  this  to  earlier  and  especially  to  Roman  his- 
toric records,  which  prove  the  real  existence  of 
old  Roman  unjfermented  wines,  are  these  :  The 
term  "  mut^s,"  an  old  Provencal,  or  Roman  pro- 
vincial word,  is  a  relic  of  Roman  times  ;  and  the 
fact  that  the  common  people  called  this  prepa- 
ration of  must  wi^ie^  though  it  had  no  "  spiritu- 
ous principle,"  is  suggestive,  if  not  demonstra- 


356  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines, 

tive,  as  will  be  seen.  Again,  the  fhct  is  estab- 
lished that  the  first  and  second  fermentation 
may  be  prevented  simply  by  the  use  of  sulphur 
vapor ;  so  that  there  will  be  no  alcohol  formed, 
provided  the  liquor  be  kept  in  winter  cold.  The 
dispute  as  to  a  name  for  what  the  people  call 
"  wine  "  is  of  no  account,  since  the  character  of 
the  article  is  recognized  by  men  of  mere  science  ; 
while  the  people's  name  for  the  article  is  a  mat- 
ter for  the  philologian  to  investigate.  The  par- 
allel will  be  found  in  Aristotle,  with  his  more 
logical  conclusion  clearly  stated. 

The  "  Dictionnaire  universal  de  Matiere  Me- 
dicale,"  Paris,  1832,  in  six  volumes,  restricted  to 
consideration  of  matters  pertaining  to  '*  Materia 
Medica,"  treats  specially  of  the  medical  uses  of 
wines  and  musts.  Under  the  word  "  Vitis," 
vine,  the  preparation  of  "  Raisin-wines  "  is  de- 
scribed ;  and  the  history  of  the  use  of  wine  as  a 
beverage  (usage  alimentaire  du  vin)  is  traced. 
Plato  by  law  would  prohibit  it  to  young  men 
under  twenty-two  years  ;  Aristotle  interdicted  it 
to  nurses  (nourrices) ;  and  Pliny  recorded  how 
the  old  Romans  restricted  its  use.  It  is  then 
stated  :  "On  appelle  viiis  mousseaux  les  vins 
dont,  on  a  intercepte,  ou  supprime  k  dessein,  la 
fermentation  sensible  "  ;  they  call  foaming  wines 
the  wines  in  which  sensible  fermentation  has 
been  intercepted,  or  suppressed  by  design.    Aft- 


Unfermented  Grape-Juice  Medicinal.     357 

er  this  statement  follow  the  details  of  making 
effervescing  wines,  as  in  Champagne ;  in  which 
the  reversing  of  the  bottles  so  as  to  allow  the 
sediment  to  gather  over  the  cork,  and  thus  the 
better  exclude  the  air,  is  mentioned ;  at  which 
point  this  statement  is  made :  "  Le  contact  de 
I'air  etant  necessaire  k  la  fermentation,"  contact 
with  the  air  being  necessary  to  fermentation. 
Here  it  is  of  importance  in  the  study  of  Roman 
methods  of  making  wine,  to  note  that  two  dis- 
tinctions appear  between  this  and  the  former 
statement  of  the  method  of  making  "  vins 
mutds"  which  have  no  alcoholic  property ;  first 
there  is  a  "sensible"  fermentation,  the  idea  in- 
dicated by  "troubler"  in  Berzelius,  distinct  from 
complete  fermentation  ;  and,  second,  \.h.e prevent- 
ing of  fermentation,  before  it  begins,  forms  an 
un-alcoholic  wine,  while  the  intercepti?tg  and 
suppressing  of  fermentation,  after  it  has  begun, 
forms  a  partially  alcoholic  wine.  Yet  more ; 
the  exclusion  of  "contact  with  air"  is  the  cause 
both  of  preventing  and  of  intercepting  fermen- 
tation. Under  the  word  "  moiit,"  must,  it  is 
stated :  "  II  passait  pour  adoucissant,  cordial 
pectoral ;  sa  vertu  laxative  est  mieux  constatee. 
Les  anciens  en  faisaient  gen^ralement  la  base 
de  leur  vins  m^dicinaux."  "It  is  reputed  a  sooth- 
ing, pectoral  cordial ;  its  laxative  influence  is 
better  established.    The  ancients  generally  made 


358  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

of  it  the  base  of  their  medicinal  wines."  This 
statement  accords  with  the  view  that  "  must," 
or  unfermented  grape-juice,  which  will  be  found 
to  be  the  Roman  "  mustum,"  the  Greek  "  gleu- 
kos,"  and  the  Hebrew  "tirosh,"  has  ?i  medicinal 
virtue,  and  that  its  influence  is  "  established " 
to  be  laxative. 

METHOD    OF    PHILOLOGICAL   INVESTIGATION. 

In  comparing  the  usage  of  different  languages 
with  each  other,  in  order  to  verify  the  interpre- 
tation of  one  language  into  another,  two  rules 
must  be  observed :  first,  the  usage  of  modern 
languages,  better  known  and  more  fully  attested, 
must  be  first  sought ;  second,  the  modern  lan- 
guage of  the  people  most  familiar  with  the  sub- 
ject under  consideration  must  be  regarded  as 
ruling  in  comparisons.  The  modern  nations 
whose  lexicographers  and  translators  of  Pliny 
are  to  be  guides,  and  the  order  of  their  authority, 
are  as  follows.  First,  the  French,  long  associated 
directly  with  the  Romans,  whose  southern  prov- 
inces retain  most  completely  the  unbroken 
succession  of  Roman  arts  and  terms  used  in 
wine-making,  are  the  ruling  people,  the  usage 
of  whose  language  is  to  be  studied.  Second,  the 
Germans,  less  associated  with  the  Romans, 
inheriting  less  the  usage  of  their  language,  and 
less  favored  as  a  vine-growing  nation,  are  second 


"  Wi7ie"  in  English,  the  universal  '"''Genus."  359 

because  of  their  comprehensive  literature.  After 
these  come  the  Italians,  closely  allied  to  the  old 
Romans,  but  having  lost  their  agricultural  arts 
more  than  have  the  French ;  the  Spaniards,  rich 
inheritors  of  the  Roman  speech,  but  less  exalted 
in  retaining  Roman  virtues ;  and  the  English, 
rich  in  culture,  but  importing  their  wines  instead 
of  making  them. 

In  tracing  the  usage  of  the  French,  the  lead- 
ing language  by  which  to  interpret  the  Roman 
agricultural  writers  back  to  the  Latin,  four 
stages  are  to  be  noted  :  first,  the  modern  French 
terms  relating  to  wines  ;  second,  the  Provengal, 
or  Roman  provincial  of  the  south  of  France ; 
third,  the  mediaeval  Latin ;  fourth,  the  classic 
Latin. 

Beginning  with  the  English  language,  as  the 
language  practically  known  to  Americans,  it  is 
to  be  observed  that  uniform  usage  makes  the 
term  wine  the  designation  of  the  genus ;  indicat- 
ing not  only  every  variet)  of  drink  made  from 
the  juice  of  the  grape,  as  "  raisin-wine,"  but  also 
from  other  fruits,  as  "  currant-wine."  Hence 
Johnson,  in  his  large  Dictionary,  quotes  from 
Bacon's  Natural  History,  "  of  the  must  of  wine," 
etc.;  while  he  cites  the  two  English  transla- 
tions of  the  Greek  "gleukos"  in  Acts  ii  13, 
where  Wycliffe  has  "  must,"  and  King  James' 
version  has  "new  wine."     Again:  in  German 


360  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

"  wein,"  like  the  English  "  wine,"  is  the  term  for 
the  ultimate  genus,  while  "  most,''  like  "  must " 
in  English,  is  a  species,  having  varieties.  Thus 
Heinsius,  in  his  Worterbuch,  Hanover,  1820, 
thus  defines  must :  "  Most,  der  siisse  ausge- 
prestse  saft  aus  vershiedenen  friichten ;  als  Wein, 
Obst,  vor  der  Gahrung";  "must,  the  sweet 
juice  pressed  out  of  various  fruits  ;  as  wine,  fruit- 
juice,  before  ferment."  To  illustrate,  he  adds, 
"  wein-most,  acpfel-most"  ;  wine-must,  apple- 
must.  Again :  Grieb,  in  his  large  Lexicon,  as 
one  definition  of  "  most,"  gives  "  ungekelteter 
wein  "  ;  unpressed  wine  ;  thus  not  only  indicat- 
ing that  must  in  general,  but  that  this  special 
variety  of  must,  which  consists  of  the  pure  sac- 
charine-juice of  the  grape  flowing  out  without 
pressure,  is  2\s,o  wine  ;  whose  mode  of  making 
is  found  in  the  Roman  writers,  and  whose  title, 
"  unfermented  wine,"  is  given  by  Fuerst. 

Turning  to  the  Italian  and  Spanish  languages, 
nearest  to  Latin,  as  German  and  English  are 
most  remote,  "vino"  is  found  to  be  the  genus, 
and  "  mosto  "  the  species.  In  the  "  Vocabolario  " 
of  the  '*  Academia  della  Crusca  di  Firenza," 
1729,  this  noted  Florentine  Society  defines 
"  mosto,  vino  nuovo  "  ;  must,  new  wine  ;  add- 
ing numerous  citations  from  standard  authors 
who  use  "vino"  as  the  universal  ^<?;2«.y.  As 
indicating  the  cognate  relationship  of  terms  for 


Italian  and  French  Terms  for  Wines.     361 

the  genus  in  all  ancient  as  well  as  modern  Euro- 
pean languages,  while  the  terms  for  species  are 
7tot  cognate,  the  "  Panlessico,"  or  universal 
lexicon,  Venice,  1839,  gives  these  Italian,  Latin, 
Greek,  German,  French,  and  English  terms : 
"  mosto,  mustum,  gleukos,  most,  mout,  must"; 
and  again,  "  vino,  vinum,  oinos,  wein,  vin,  wine." 
As  we  shall  see,  "  yayin,"  in  Hebrew,  belongs 
to  this  long  list  of  generic  cognates  ;  while  the 
Hebrew  "tirosh,"  like  the  Greek  "gleukos," 
designating  a  species,  is  not  cognate  with,  though 
parallel  to,  the  Latin  "  mustum  "  and  its  modern 
derivatives.  The  Spanish,  in  perfect  accord 
with  the  Italian,  needs  no  citation  in  this  prepa- 
ration for  the  study  of  translations  of  Roman 
writers  on  wine. 

Coming  now  to  the  French,  the  popular  yet 
comprehensive  Dictionary  of  Spiers  and  Surenne 
deserves  study,  since  it  is  founded  on  all  the 
leading  dictionaries,  both  French  and  English, 
whose  lists  appear  on  the  title-page.  The  En- 
glish definition  of  the  French  "moCit"  is  "must 
(unfermented  wine)."  Going  back  to  the  author- 
ities for  the  parenthetic  designation  "  unfer- 
mented wine,"  we  find,  both  in  the  Scientific 
Dictionary  of  the  French  Academy  and  in  the 
National  Lexicon  of  Bescherelle,  these  common 
statements  and  citations  :  "  Modt,  vin  qui  vient 
d'etre  ;  et  qui  n'a  pas  encore  ferment^  "  ;  must, 
16 


362  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

wine  which  is  coming  to  be  such,  and  which  has 
not  yet  fermented.  Turning  to  the  terms  for 
"  ferment,''  two  specific  words,  indicating  differ- 
ent stages  in  its  progress,  are  carefully  distin- 
guished by  French  lexicographers,  as  they  are 
by  French  translators  of  the  Roman  writers  on 
wine.  These  are,  "bouillir,"  to  effervesce,  and 
"  fermenter,"  to  ferment.  Under  "bouillir"is 
found  the  explanation,  "  quand  la  chaleur  ou  la 
fermentation  y  produit  un  mouvement ;  e.o^.,  le 
vin  bout  dans  la  cuve "  ;  when  heat  or  fer- 
mentation produces  in  it  a  movement ;  for  in- 
stance, the  wine  effervesces  in  the  vat.  In 
French  translations  of  Pliny  "  bouillir,"  used  in 
rendering  the  Latin  "  ferveo,"  refers  to  the  ap- 
pearance of  air  bubbles  observed  in  boiling 
water  and  in  effervescing  wines.  That  "  must  " 
in  France  is  used  as  a  beverage  is  indicated  by 
the  Academy  and  by  Beschereile  in  the  com- 
mon citation,  "  boire  du  moiit  "  ;  to  drink  must. 
The  important  points  to  note  in  our  survey  are, 
that  the  term  "  vin  "  includes  must,  and  that  ail 
musts,  as  well  as  the  special  variety  noted  by 
Fuerst,  are  wines  unfermented. 

The  transition  from  classic  to  mediaeval 
Latin,  and  again  from  Provengal,  or  Roman  pro- 
vincial, to  modern  French,  is  indicated  by  these 
citations.  Du  Cange,  in  his  "  Glossarium 
Mediae  et  Infimse  Latinitatis,"  indicates  that  in 


Medieval  Latin  Terms  for  Wines.      363 

the  mediaeval  Latin  "vinum"  had  become  so 
universally  generic  that  it  had  displaced  the 
classic  Latin  "  mustum  "  ;  which  was  originally 
an  adjective,  but  came  to  be  used  by  later 
Roman  and  by  ecclesiastic  writers  as  a  noun 
neuter.  Hence  "  mustum  "  is  not  found  in  Du 
Cange  as  a  term  of  mediaeval  or  low-Latin.  In 
place  of  it  the  following  is  found ;  "  Mustalis, 
vinum  mustale "  ;  mustal,  mustal-wine  ;  which 
designation,  Du  Cange  states,  was  used  for  the 
old  Latin  "  mustum,"  In  illustration  he  cites 
imperial  and  ecclesiastical  "chartae,"  or  orders 
written  in  Latin,  of  the  dates  a.d.  1244  and 
1259;  also  a  "  charta"  in  the  mediaeval  French 
of  A.D.  1254,  showing  how,  in  the  intercourse 
of  Romans  with  French  natives,  the  Latin 
"mustum "  becanie  successively  "  mustalis,  mus- 
taigialis,  mostaige,  and  moustaige."  The  use 
of  "  vinum "  as  the  ultimate  genus  is  farther 
indicated  in  the  compound  "  vinum-acetum  "  ; 
French  "vin-aigre,"  English  "  vinegar,"  or 
sour-wine.  Under  the  word  "mutere"  the 
lexicographer  traces  back  the  variations  from 
the  modern  French  to  the  classic  Latin  in  this 
succession:  "muet,  mus, muiaus, mutus";  thusil- 
lustratino-the  term  "mutes"  found  in  Pancoucke. 
In  the  '' Dictionnaire  Provengal  Frangais," 
edited  by  a  medical  writer,  Honnorat,  in  1846, 
published  at  Digne,  capital  of  the  department 


364         The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

"  Basses-Alpes,''  in  the  south  of  France,  these 
definitions  are  found :  "  jnoust,  Lat.  mustum," 
derived  by  some  *'  du  Gr.  metku,  vin,  jus  de 
raisin  tire  de  la  cuve  avant  qu'il  ait  cuve  ou  fer- 
mente";  from  the  Gr&ekmethu,  wine,  juice  of  the 
grape  drawn  from  the  vat  before  it  is  set  or  fer- 
mented. Here  the  form  of  the  word  for  "  must " 
indicates  the  transition  from  Latin  to  French  ; 
the  Greek  derivation  suggested  throws  light 
on  the  meaning  of  methe  in  the  Septuagint 
translation  of  the  Old  Testament  traced  by 
Cocceius ;  and  it  confirms  the  translation  given  of 
such  passages  as  Hos.  iv.  11,  and  i  Cor.  xi.  21. 
Again  Honnorat  defines  :  "fermentar,  Lat.  fer- 
mentare.  On  dit  en  parlant  de  la  pate,  levar,  au 
lieu  de  fermenter ;  en  parlant  de  vin  bouilhir  "/ 
it  is  said  in  speaking  of  dough,  to  raise,  instead 
of  to  ferment ;  in  speaking  of  wine  to  boil  or 
effervesce.  In  this  statement  the  links  in  the 
chain  of  testimonies  fixing  the  interpretation  of 
the  Roman  writers  are  seen  to  be  unbroken. 
Yet  again  he  defines :  "  mut,  mute,  Lat.  mutus," 
after  which  follow  the  cognate  Spanish  "  mudo," 
French  "  muet,"  etc.;  indicating  that  the  popular 
meaning  attached  to  the  still  existing  Proven9al 
designation  "vins  mutes,"  or  mute,  i.e.,  silent 
wines,  is  universal,  and  perpetuated  in  the  lan- 
guage of  the  common  people ;  which  common 
usage  alone  determines  verbal  criticism. 


Methods  of  Histo^'ic  Research.  365 

METHODS      OF      HISTORIC      RESEARCH      IN      ROMAN 
WRITERS. 

The  study,  comparison,  and  harmonizing  of 
records,  under  "  rules  of  interpretation,"  par- 
takes of  the  nature  of  all  investigation.  First, 
the  methods  of  ascertaining  the  meaning  of 
terms,  laid  down  by  Blackstone  in  law,  by  Nie- 
buhr  in  general  literature,  and  by  Ernesti  in  Bi- 
ble study,  must  be  followed ;  the  tracing  suc- 
cessively of  the  meaning  of  words,  of  their  con- 
nection in  the  context,  of  the  nature  of  the  sub- 
ject-matter treated,  of  the  consequences  of  any 
adopted  interpretation,  and  of  the  historic  sur- 
roundings of  the  writer.  Second,  the  Jurist's 
Laws  of  Evidence,  as  in  Greenleaf,  must  guide 
investigation  ;  as,  that  technical  terms  be  ex- 
plained by  experts.  Third,  the  logician's  rule, 
as  of  Aristotle,  that  not  words  alone,  since  they 
may  have  different  or  loose  acceptations,  be  re- 
garded ;  but  that  the  things  and  ideas  to  which 
they  are  applied  be  examined.  Fourth,  the  sci- 
entist's principle  must  guide,  as  recognized  by 
Bacon,  and  followed  by  men  like  Newton  and 
Cuvier ;  that  truth  is  not  reached  unless  the 
conclusion  harmonizes,  not  2i  part,  but  the  whole 
of  the  facts  observed  or  recorded.  Directed  by 
these  guides  the  main  rules  of  survey  must  be 
the  following.  Words  relating  to  wines,  cognate 


366  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

or  not  cognate,  generic  or  not  generic,  in  all 
languages,  Semitic  and  European,  and  in  all 
records,  sacred  or  secular,  must  be  compared. 
In  historic  research,  men  like  Guizot  must  in- 
terpret on  law,  like  Fuseli  on  art,  like  H.  C. 
Agrippa  on  magic,  and  like  De  Sivrey  on  wines. 
Again,  logical  connection,  as  well  as  chronolog- 
ical succession  of  records,  must  be  followed  ; 
and,  above  all,  the  spirit  of  the  judge,  responsi- 
ble and  impartial,  not  of  the  mere  critic  or  spe- 
cial pleader,  seeking  some  personal  end,  must 
prevail. 

In  the  study  of  the  Roman  writers  as  to  "un- 
fermented  wine,"  four  points  must  be  kept  in 
view:  first,  the  essential  meaning  of  terms  in 
themselves ;  second,  the  grammatical  and  log- 
ical relations  of  generic  and  specific  words  to 
each  other ;  third,  the  historic  succession  of 
writers  and  the  order  of  their  treatises  ;  fourth, 
the  editions  that  are  used.  Under  the  first  point 
come  the  terms  for  strainers  which  filtered  the 
must ;  the  words  indicating  the  changes  wrought 
after  the  straining,  and  the  nature  of  the  product 
after  that  change.  The  strainers  were  of  two 
kinds :  the  "  colum,"  or  basket,  made  of  straw 
or  wicker-work,  corresponding  to  the  coarse 
strainers  of  straw  used  in  American  cider-press- 
es ;  while  the  "  saccum,"  or  cloth-strainer,  was 
in  Egyptian  and  Roman  wine-making  far  more 


Idioms  of  the  Latin  Language.         367 

effective.  The  terms  for  effervescence,  ebulli- 
tion, and  ferment  have  already  been  noticed. 
The  contrasted  terms  "unfermented  "  and  "fer- 
mented wine  "  are  to  be  judged  not  as  sounds 
to  the  ear,  but  as  essentially  distinct  products  ; 
the  one  without  ferment,  the  other  made  alco- 
holic by  ferment ;  for,  if  the  Latin  idiom  was  not 
in  this  respect  cognate  to  the  German,  French, 
and  English,  which,  however,  all  scientific  trans- 
lators consider  as  actual,  yet  the  question  at 
issue  is  whether  grape  juice  was  kept  unfer- 
mented  from  one  vintage  to  another  and  was 
by  wine-makers  called  wine.  Under  the  second 
point  it  is  especially  to  be  observed  that  the 
Latin  mode  of  forming  compound  words  was 
partly  that  of  the  Oriental  tongues,  without 
change  of  form  or  union  in  writing,  and  partly 
that  of  the  Greek  in  writing  together,  with  eu- 
phonic changes,  the  two  words  as  one  com- 
pound ;  while  the  modern  use  of  the  hyphen 
was  unknown.  Thus  the  Greeks  wrote  for 
must  permanently  unfermented,  "  aeigleukos," 
uniting  the  words ;  the  Latins  wrote  "  semper 
mustum,"  keeping  the  two  separate ;  while  the 
English,  corresponding  to  the  German,  write 
"  always-must."  Under  the  third  point,  since 
Pliny  quotes  the  agricultural  writers,  Cato,  Co- 
lumella, and  Varro,  who  preceded  him,  the 
writers  quoted  must  be  read  before  the  writer 


368  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

who  quotes.  Yet  again,  since  Pliny,  in  his  14th 
book,  treats  specially  of  wines  as  a  beverage, 
and  in  his  23d  book  of  wines  as  medicines,  care 
should  be  taken  not  to  confuse  one  statement 
with  another.  Under  the  fourth  point  the  rule 
of  calling  in  experts  to  interpret  records,  equally 
important  in  literary  criticism  and  in  law  courts, 
is  carefully  to  be  regarded.  Of  the  agricultural 
writers  there  are  several  editions,  the  more  im- 
portant of  which  are  the  Paris  edition  of  Har- 
douin,  about  1730,  and  the  Leipsic  edition  of 
1735*  The  editions  of  Pliny  to  be  consulted  on 
"wines"  are  the  Aldine,  Venice,  1576;  the  El- 
zevir, Leyden,  1635  ;  that  of  Hardouin,  Paris, 
1 741 ;  the  Biponti  Society's,  1784;  that  of  Poin- 
sinet  de  Sivrey,  Paris,  1771-82  ;  that  of  Ajasson, 
Paris,  1829-33,  and  that  of  Sillig,  Leipsic,  1831- 
36 ;  to  which  may  be  added  the  Italian  transla- 
tion of  Domenicho,  Venice,  1603.  The  fact  that 
the  Elzevirs  were  the  leading  Protestant  pub- 
lishing house  which  issued  the  celebrated  edi- 
tion of  the  Greek  New  Testament,  and  that 
Hardouin  was  a  Jesuit  father,  is  to  be  consid- 
ered in  their  differences  as  to  the  text  and 
teaching  of  Pliny  at  one  or  two  disputed  points. 
The  Italian  translation  of  Domenicho,  and  yet 
more  the  full  paraphrastic  translation  of  De 
Sivrey,  are  authoritative  guides,  since  they  wrote 
as  experts  in  the  modern  art,  as  well  as  in  the 


Roman  Agricultural  Writers.         369 

ancient  literature  of  wine-making.  The  notes 
of  Ajasson,  who  follows  De  Sivrey  in  his  trans- 
lation, are  yet  more  authoritative,  since  his  edi- 
tion combined  the  testimonies  of  thirty  men  of 
science,  among  whom  was  Cuvier,  whose  names 
appear  on  the  title-page. 

THE    ROMAN    AGRICULTURAL    WRITERS    ON    WINES 

Coming  then  to  the  agricultural  writers 
(Scriptores  de  Re  Rustica),  we  find  the  term 
"vinum"  fixed  as  generic,  and  "mustum"  as 
specific.  The  terms  "  fervesco  "  and  "  effer- 
vesco  "  indicate  the  inchoative,  or  first  appear- 
ance of  the  change  that  ends  in  complete  fer- 
mentation ;  the  term  "  ferveo "  indicates  the 
advanced  and  active  stage  of  formation  of  car- 
bonic acid  gas  ;  while  the  term  "  fermento " 
designates  the  completed  alcoholic  formation. 
This  distinction  of  meaning  in  these  three  terms 
may  be  found  confirmed  by  citations  from  the 
agricultural  writers  in  all  the  larger  Latin  lex- 
icons, as  Leverett's ;  while  the  "  Lexicon  Totius 
Latinitatis,"  of  Corradini,  cites  in  illustration 
entire  passages  taken  from  these  writers.  The 
"  colum,"  or  basket-strainer,  is  in  Cato  the  com- 
mon strainer ;  while  in  Pliny  it  is  scarcely  named, 
and  seems  to  be  superseded  by  the  more  per- 
fect filter  of  the  "  saccum,"  or  cloth-strainer. 
16* 


;^'jo          The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

CATO,     'HE      FIRST      AGRICULTURAL      WRITER      ON 
WINES. 

Cato,  the  patriotic  old  Roman  statesman, 
turned  farmer,  writing  about  B.C.  20Q,  gives  his 
statements  in  the  form  of  recipes.  From  Nos. 
12  to  18  he  treats  of  the  construction  of  wine- 
presses ;  making  the  "  torculare,"  or  twist-press, 
prominent.  From  Nos.  19  to  23  he  describes  the 
methods  of  preparing  jars,  the  use  of  oil  being 
mentioned ;  after  which  follow  details  of  grape- 
gathering  and  wine-making.  At  No.  114  he 
writes:  "Vinum  si  voles  concinnare  ut  alvum 
bonum  faciat,"  if  you  wish  to  compound  a  wine 
that  may  keep  the  bowels  in  good  condition, 
etc. ;  and  having  stated  special  pruning  of  the 
vines,  he  adds:  "  et  bibito  ante  coenam ;  sine 
periculo  alvum  movebit,"  and  drink  this  before 
supper ;  without  risk  it  will  move  the  bowels. 
In  continuation,  at  No.  115,  he  writes  :  "  In  vi- 
num mustum  veratri  atri  manipulum  conjicito 
in  amphoram ;  ubi  satis  efferverit,  de  vino  ma- 
nipulum ejicito  ;  id  vinum  servato  ad  alvum  mo- 
vendum " :  into  wine-must  throw  a  handful  of 
dark  hellebore  into  the  jar ;  when  it  has  effer- 
vesced sufficiently,  throw  the  handful  out  of  the 
wine ;  preserve  that  wine  for  moving  the  bow- 
els. All  the  commentators  agree  that  here 
"  vinum  mustum  "  is  a  compound  word,  "  mus* 


Catds  Use  of  "  Vinum''  and  ''Mustum''  371 

turn  "  being  used  adjectively ;  and  that  "  vinum  " 
is  here  shown  by  the  earliest  Roman  usage  to 
be  generic,  including  "  mustum  "  as  a  species  ; 
precisely  as  in  all  the  modern  tongues  of  Europe 
the  cognate  terms  for  "wine''  are  used.  The 
immediate  connection  of  this  recipe  with  the 
preceding,  thus  indicating  more  clearly  the  use 
of  "vinum"  as  the  ultimate  genus,  is  pointed 
out  in  a  note  in  the  Leipsic  edition  which  quotes 
the  kindred  expressions  "for  moving  the  bow- 
els." Freund,  in  his  Latin-French  Lexicon, 
cites  it ;  and  Corradini,  in  citing  it,  fills  out 
Cato's  omission  in  the  second  clause,  thus : 
"  ubi  satis  efferverit  vinum  mustum,"  when  the 
wine-must  has  sufficiently  effervesced.  At  No. 
120  occurs  the  statement  whose  translation  Dr. 
Moore  criticises  (page  104,  note;  without  quot- 
ing it:  "  Mustum  si  voles  totum  annum  habere, 
in  amphoram  mustum  indito ;  et  corticem  oppi- 
cato,  demittito  in  piscinam  ;  post  xxx  diem  exi- 
mito  ;  totum  annum  mustum  erit";  "if  you  wish 
to  have  must  all  the  year,  put  the  must  into  a 
flask ;  seal  over  the  cork  with  pitch,  and  lower 
it  into  the  cistern  ;  after  thirty  days  take  it  out ; 
it  will  be  must  all  the  year."  After  the  attested 
law  of  fermentation  already  considered,  it  is 
manifest  from  this  statement  of  Cato  alone, 
that  the  Romans  preserved  must  unfermented 
throughout  the  year ;  or  as  long  as  it  was  needed^ 


372  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

that  is,  from  vintage  to  vintage.  It  is  also  man- 
ifest from  No.  115  that  must  was  classed  as  a 
species  under  the  genus  wine. 

VARRO,    THE    SECOND    AGRICULTURAL    WRITER    ON 
WINES. 

Varro,  a  century  and  a  half  later,  contempo- 
rary with  Cicero  and  his  rival  in  eloquence, 
familiar  with  the  scenes  pictured  by  Virgil,  when 
in  his  old  age  he  wrote  his  three  books  on  hus- 
bandry not  only  had  the  early  experience  of 
Cato,  but  also  the  extended  learning  of  his  day, 
when  he  used  language  in  harmony  with  that 
of  other  writers  of  his  age.  Writing  in  the  di- 
dactic style,  he  states  (I.  13),  "  Saepe,  ubi  con- 
ditum  novum  vinum,  orcse  in  Hispania  a  fervore 
musti  ruptae  " ;  often,  when  new  wine  is  put  up, 
the  jars  in  Spain  are  ruptured  by  the  efferves- 
cence of  the  must.  Here  these  four  facts  are 
manifest :  first,  new  wine  and  must  are  applied 
to  the  same  article,  showing  "vinum"  is  generic 
and  required  the  affix  "  novum  "  in  order  to 
make  it  equivalent  to  the  species  "  mustum  " ; 
second,  it  is  fresh-grape-juice,  put  up  with  the 
design  that  it  shall  be  preserved  unfermented, 
that  is  in  mind  ;  third,  it  is  the  ebullition  of  ^as, 
not  the  alcoholic  ferment,  as  Varro's  use  of 
"fermento"  (I.  38)  shows,  that  breaks  the  jars; 
and  fourth,  there  was  something  either  in  the 


Varto  on  Various  Wines.  2>17) 

shape  of  the  jar  (large-bellied  as  the  orca  was)  or 
in  the  climate,  or  in  the  husbandry  of  Spain,  that 
caused  the  special  loss  referred  to.  A  little  far- 
ther on  (I.  65),  as  cited  by  Dr.  Moore  (p.  102), 
Varro  writes :  "  Quod  mustum  conditur  in  do- 
lium  ut  habeamus  vinum  non  promendum  dum 
fervet,  neque  etiam  cum  processit  ita,  ut  sit  vi- 
num factum,  si  vetus  bibere  velis,  quod  non  fit 
antequam  accesserit  annus,  tarn,  cum  fuerit  an- 
niculum  prodit."  "  The  must  which  is  put  up  in 
a  cask  that  we  may  have  wine  not  to  be  drawn 
forth  while  it  is  effervescing,  nor  even  when  it 
has  advanced  so  far  that  it  may  have  become 
wine,  if  you  wish  to  drink  it  old,  which  it  does 
not  become  before  a  year  has  passed,  then, 
when  it  becomes  a  year  old,  it  comes  forth  such." 
Here  these  connected  facts  are  to  be  observed : 
First,  the  design  here  is  not  to  preserve  must, 
which  after  thirty  days  can  be  opened  and  used 
as  such  till  the  n«.xt  vintage ;  but  the  design  is 
to  obtain  an  old  wine.  Second,  the  mode  of 
securing  such  wine,  like  that  of  obtaining  old 
cider,  is  not  to  place  it  in  sealed  jars,  like  pre- 
served must,  but  in  casks;  the  term  "  dolium," 
as  Leverett  states  and  illustrates,  and  as  the  old 
poet  Plautus  pictures  (Pseud,  ii.  2,  64),  indicat- 
ing a  strong  inclosed  cask  into  which  fermented 
and  alcoholic  wines  were  placed  till  the  ferment 
was  complete.    Third,  the  "  mustum"  was  called 


374  ^^^  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

"  vinum  "  during  the  process  of  effervescence, 
and  before  its  alcoholic  ferment  was  completed. 
Fourth,  old  wine  was  a  species  under  the  genus 
wine ;  for  the  adjective  "  vetus "  has  its  noun 
"vinum"  understood;  and  hence  "vinum"  is 
the  ultimate  genus  for  grape-juice  in  all  its 
stages  of  change  from  its  first  extract. 

To  these  direct  testimonies  of  Varro  must  be 
added  his  mention  of  honey,  associated  as  it  is 
with  wine  by  Roman  as  well  as  Greek,  Hebrew, 
and  Arabian  writers,  because  it  is  mainly  from 
the  same  vintagfe  that  bees  fill  their  cells  and 
vintners  fill  their  cellars.  In  the  midst  of  his 
statements  as  to  the  harvest  and  vintage,  Varro 
states  (iii.,  15)  that  bees  make  "quod  dulcissi- 
mum,  quod  et  diis  et  hominibus  est  acceptum, 
quod  favus  venit  in  altaria,  et  mel  ad  principia 
convivii,  et  in  secundam  mensam  administratur  "; 
what  is  the  sweetest,  what  is  accepted  by  gods 
and  men,  in  that  the  honey-comb  comes  to  the 
altars,  and  honey  is  served  at  the  beginning  of 
a  feast,  as  also  at  the  second  course.  In  a  note 
Hardouin  says:  "The  Romans,  at  the  begin- 
ing  of  a  feast,  satiated  their  first  thirst  with 
honey  drink."  Among  other  authorities,  he  cites 
Euripides  in  "  Iphigenia "  as  proof  that  "the 
ancients  were  accustomed  to  employ  honey  in 
divine  rites." 


Columella  on  *' Musts''  and  *' Honey y     375 

COLUMELLA    THE     THIRD     AGRICULTURAL   WRITER 
ON    WINES. 

Columella,  born  under  Augustus  and  living  a 
generation  later  than  Varro,  a  native  of  Spain 
and  yet  a  Roman  statesman,  having  therefore  a 
specially  wide  field  of  observation  and  a  culture 
fitted  for  accuracy  of  statement,  wrote  on  agri- 
culture, specially  on  wine-culture  and  wine- 
making,  much  more  elaborately  than  either  of 
his  predecessors.  At  an  early  stage  in  his  twelve 
successive  books  he  gives  the  distinction  be- 
tween "  effervescence  "  and  "  ferment."  At  i,  11 
he  speaks  of  "fermentum"  as  witnessed  "in 
massa  farinaria,"  or  kneaded  dough ;  while  at 
xii.  17  he  illustrates  it  thus,  "  fermentantur  in 
amphora  ficus,"  the  figs  become  fermented  in 
the  jar.  On  the  other  hand,  at  ix.  15  he  states, 
"  Succo  suo  mella  corrumpunt.  Deinde,  ubi 
liquatum  mel  in  subjectum  alveum  defluxit,  trans- 
fertur  in  vasa  fictilia,  quae  paucis  diebus  aperta 
sint,  dum  musteus  fructus  defervescat,  isque 
ssepius  ligula  purgandus  est."  By  consulting 
only  the  common  lexicons,  as  Leverett's,  the 
ordinary  reader  will  perceive  that  this  is  wild- 
honey,  or  the  sweet  syrup  of  juicy  fruits  and 
trees,  which  is  described,  and  that  this  is  its  trans- 
lation. "  Syrups  corrupt  in  their  own  watery 
juice.     Hence,  when  the  liquid  syrup  has  flowed 


2)76  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

into  the  trough  placed  underneath,  it  is  trans- 
ferred into  earthen  vessels,  which  may  remain 
open  a  few  days,  while  the  must-product  com- 
pletes its  effervescence,  and  is  frequently  cleansed 
with  the  skimmer."  Here  three  points  are 
noteworthy :  first,  that  it  is  the  water  in  the 
juice  evaporated  by  exposure  to  the  sun  and  air 
which  would  cause  corruption,  unless  expelled ; 
second,  that  it  is  the  "  must-slush  "  (present  in 
the  "  eau  de  lavage  "  of  Pasteur)  which  is  also 
a  cause  of  continual  effervescence ;  third,  that 
"  effervescence  "  is  distinct  from  alcoholic  fer- 
ment. It  is  specially  to  be  observed  that  beside 
the  skimmer  (ligula)  a  basket-filter  (colum)  and 
a  cloth-strainer  were  used  for  the  must  of  grapes. 
The  poet  Martial,  contemporary  with  Columella, 
refers  to  the  same,  xii.  6i,  and  xiv.  104. 

Coming  now  to  the  more  important  state- 
ments of  Columella  in  his  last  book,  having  indi- 
cated, as  above  cited,  the  distinct  nature  of  effer- 
vescence as  distinct  from  ferment  (xii.  17),  he 
adds  more  fully  (xii.  25),  "  ut  in  effervescendo 
vinum  se  bene  purgat  fervore  "  ;  that  in  efferves- 
cing it  may  purge  itself  well  by  the  ebullition. 
Intermediate,  now,  between  these  two  state- 
ments, he  describes  (xii.  19)  a  method  of  pre- 
serving wines  similar  to  that  practiced  in  Egypt 
in  the  earliest  times.  His  words  are :  "  Gura 
quoque   adhibenda  est,   et  expressum  mustum 


Preserved  Must  and  Sweet  Wine.        2)11 

perenne  sit,  aut    certe    usque    ad  venditionem 

durabile Oportet  autem  antequam  mus- 

tum  in  vasa  defrutaria  conficiatur  oleo  bono 
plumbea  ipsa  intrinsecus  imbui,  et  bene  fricari, 
utque  ita  mustum  adjici."  "  Care  also  is  to  be 
taken  that  the  must  pressed  out  be  perennial, 

or  certainly  durable  until  the  sale  season 

It  is  necessary  also,  before  the  must  is  put 
into  the  jars  for  boiled  wine,  that  the  lead- 
covers  themselves  be  soaked  in  good  oil  and 
be  well  rubbed,  and  that  then  the  must  be 
placed  in  them."  In  continuation  (xii.  26),  he 
alludes  to  the  straining  of  the  must  which  has 
first  been  extracted  thus :  "  Curandum  est,  ut 
cum  uvam  legereris  et  calcaveris,  priusquam 
vinacea  torculis  exprimantur,  mustum  in  corbem 
defundas,"  etc. ;  care  should  be  taken  that,  when 
you  have  gathered  and  trodden  the  grapes,  be- 
fore that  the  grape-skins  are  crushed  in  the 
presses,  you  pour  off  the  must  into  the  basket- 
strainer,  etc.  In  the  next  paragraph  (xii.  27) 
quoted  by  Dr.  Moore  (p.  no)  he  describes  the 
mode  of  making  "sweet  wine"  (vinum  dulce) 
by  spreading  the  grapes  three  days  in  the  sun, 
and  treading  them  in  the  tub  while  warm  at 
noon  on  the  fourth  day ;  adding,  '*  mustum 
lixivium,  hoc  est,  antequam  praelo  pressum  sit 
quod  in  lacum  musti  fluxerit,  toUito  "  ;  take  out 
the  lixivian  must,  that  is,  what  had  flowed  into 


^yS  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines, 

the  must-vat  before  it  has  been  squeezed  under 
the  press.  Here  it  is  to  be  observed  that  there 
were  varieties  of  must,  as  of  wine,  as  Fuerst  has 
indicated  under  "  tirosh  ";  and  the  "  lixivium,"  or 
fresh-flowing,  as  opposed  to  the  "  tortivum  "  or 
press-squeezed  (xii.  36),  as  the  Leipsic  editor 
notes,  is  virtually  the  "  protropos "  of  the 
Greeks,  which  drips  from  the  over-ripe  grapes 
on  the  vines  ;  the  long  exposure  to  the  heat  of 
the  sun  causing  the  saccharine  juice  to  form  to 
such  an  extent  as  to  burst  the  skins  and  to  cause 
a  spontaneous  flow.  Afterwards,  when  the 
eflervescence  is  exhausted  (deferbuerit)  it  is  a 
"  sweet  wine,"  because,  as  in  modern  wine- 
making,  the  fermenting  element,  which  is  in  the 
pulp,  was  so  slight  that  a  large  part  of  the  sac- 
charine juice  remains  unaffected  by  it.  Both 
the  words  "wine"  and  "must,"  as  is  here  indi- 
cated, have  their  varieties.  The  next  sentence 
(xii.  28)  beginning,  "  alia  medicaminum  genera 
vini,  sic  facito,"  other  kinds  of  wine-medica- 
ments thus  make,  shows  that  it  is  not  a  b.^ver- 
age  in  health,  but  a  medicine  for  sickness,  that 
is  above  described ;  a  fact  further  confirmed  by 
the  closing  statement,  "  multo  melius  et  firmius 
erit  vinum  "  ;  the  wine  will  be  much  better  and 
firmer ;  evidently  in  contrast  with  the  closing 
statement  as  to  that  before  described,  "  hoc 
vinum  erit  suave,  firmum,  corpori  salubre,"  this 


Preserved  Must  a  Wine.  3  79 

wine  will  be  mild,  firm,  and  healthful  to  the  body 
There  immediately  follows  (xii.  29)  the  state- 
ment Dr.  Moore  does  not  quote :  "  Mustum  ul 
semper  dulce,  tanquam  recens,  permaneat,  sic 
facito.  Ante  prelo  vinacea  subjiciantur,  de  lacu 
quam  recentissimum  addito  mustum  in  ampho- 
ram  novam,  eamque  oblinito,  et  impicato  dili- 
genter,  ne  quidquam  aquae  introire  possit;  tunc 
in  piscinam  frigidse  et  dulcis  aquae  totam  am- 
phoram  mergito,  ita  nequa  pars  extet ;  deinde 
post  dies  xl  eximito.  Sic  usque  in  annum 
dulce  permanebit."  "  That  must  may  remain  al- 
ways sweet,  as  when  fresh,  thus  do :  before  the 
grape-skins  are  subjected  to  the  press,  put  the 
must,  when  freshest  from  the  vat,  into  a  new 
flask,  stop  it  up  and  pitch  it  carefully,  so  that 
no  water  can  enter ;  then  sink  the  entire  flask 
in  a  cistern  of  cold  and  sweet  water,  so  that  no 
part  be  out;  then,  after  forty  days,  take  it  out; 
thus  it  will  remain  sweet  throughout  the  year." 
Dr.  Moore  admits  that  77tust  (p.  104)  is  thus 
kept  as  must  during  the  year,  but  objects  to  its 
being  classified  as  a  wine.  It  is  sufficient  to 
call  attention  to  the  connection  of  the  following 
paragraph  (xii.  30),  as  also  to  the  preceding 
(xii.  28) ;  which,  if  read  in  connection  with  this 
intervening  paragraph,  indicate  conclusively  that 
Columella,  like  Cato,  ranks  preserved  musts  as 
a  class  of  wines. 


380  The  Divine  Lazv  as  to  Wines. 

At  ix.  15,  Columella  indicates,  as  other  writers 
on  wines,  the  relation  of  honey  to  wine.  In  the 
description  of  the  "  mellis  vindemia,"  or  honey 
vintage,  in  which  the  designation  is  significant, 
Columella  treats  of  methods  of  saving  the  bees 
while  securing  their  honey.  In  beautiful  allu- 
sion to  Virgil's  humane  spirit  toward  even  the 
"  ignava  pecus,"  or  drones.  Columella  thus 
describes  the  strainer  for  both  must  and  honey : 
"Saligneus  qualus,  vel  tenui  vimine  rarius  con- 
textus  saccus,  inversse  metae  similis,  qualis  est 
quo  vinum  liquatur,  obscuro  loco  suspenditur ; 
in  eum  deinde  carptim  congeruntur  favi."  "  A 
willow  basket,  or  a  sack  woven  loosely  with  a 
slender  thread,  like  an  inverted  cone,  is  sus- 
pended in  a  shady  place  ;  in  this,  piece  by  piece, 
the  honey-comb  is  heaped."  This  relation  of 
honey  to  must,  before  noted,  is  of  vital  import 
in  tracing  essential  truth  as  to  unintoxicating 
wines. 

PLINY,    THE    ROMAN    NATURALIST,    ON    WINES. 

Besides  the  distinction  between  words  indi- 
cating the  nature  of  wines  as  fermented  and  un- 
fermented,  noted  in  the  Latin  terms  "  effervesce  " 
and  "  ferment,"  as  well  as  those  suggesting  the 
means  of  separating  the  gluten  from  the  juice 
proper,  observed  in  the  "  colum  "  and  "  saccus  " 
used   for    straining   "  must,"   in    Pliny  another 


Pliny  s  Anato7nical  Terms.  381 

class  of  words  must  be  carefully  kept  distinct. 
Since  Pliny  speaks  of  the  nutritive  and  medicinal 
properties  of  wines  and  musts,  the  terms  for  the 
internal  organs  used  by  the  Greek  and  Latin 
scientific  writers  are  to  be  carefully  studied. 
Pliny's  anatomical  descriptions  precede  his 
statements  as  to  wines,  being  found  minutely 
presented  in  several  chapters  of  his  eleventh 
book  ;  only  a  few  particulars  of  which  pertain  to 
the  interpretation  of  his  discussion  of  wines.  At 
xi.  66,  describing  the  stomach,-  "  stomachum," 
derived  as  the  Greek  is  from  "  stoma,"  the 
mouth,  Pliny  makes  it  include  the  gullet  or 
esophagus,  since  he  represents  the  voice  as 
proceeding  from  it.  Again,  he  thus  locates  two 
organs  of  digestion  :  "  Subest  venter  stoma- 
chum, habentibus,  ceteris  simplex,  ruminantibus 
geminas  ";  the  abdomen  is  under  the  stomach, 
to  those  having  it,  double  in  ruminants,  simple 
in  other  animals ;  the  term  "  venter,"^when 
used'  specifically,  manifestly  including  the  diges- 
tive organs,  not  simply  the  stomach  alone  as  a 
receptacle  pf  food.  The  term  "interanea"  is 
manifestly  intestines;  while  the  term  "vena" 
refers  to  the  circulatory  organs,  since  in  xi.  88 
is  found  the  definition  "  venae,  id  est,  sanguinis 
rivi ;"  the  veins,  that  is,  the  blood-vessels. 
The  French  translations  of  De  Sivrey  are :  for 
"stomachus,"  estomac ;     for   "venter,   ventre: 


382  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

for  "interanea,"  entrailles ;  for  "vena,'  veine 
These  terms,  in  the  main,  correspond  to  the 
following  Greek  terms  :  stomachus  to  "  stoma- 
chos,"  venter  to  "  koilia,"  and  vena  to  "  phleps," 
whence  our  word  phlebotomy.  The  importance 
of  noticing  these  distinctions  will  appear  in  inter- 
preting statements  of  Pliny,  which,  but  for  his 
own  definitions,  would,  as  French  scientific 
writers  intimate,  be  obscure.  The  minute  knowl- 
edge of  the  Greek  and  Roman  physicians  is 
like  that  of  the  ancient  discoverers  in  natural 
history ;  which,  as  Agassiz  often  remarked, 
could  not  be  translated  till  their  observations 
have  been  repeated. 

In  the  early  part  of  his  eleventh  book,  Pliny, 
in  a  double  allusion  to  honey  and  must,  makes 
these  noteworthy  statements.  Alluding  (xi.  14) 
to  the  fact  that  the  greater  part  of  the  honey  of 
the  bees  is  from  their  gatherings  at  vintage 
(vindemise),  Pliny  remarks  that  the  more  thrifty 
(diligentiores)  "leave  a  tenth  part  to  the  bees." 
Referring  then  (xi.  15)  to  the  spontaneous  flow 
from  the  bursting  fruits  as  the  riches/,  he  says  : 
"  In  omni  melle  quod  per  se  fluxit,  ut  mustum, 
oleumque,  appellatur  acetum  ";  in  all  honey  that 
which  flows  spontaneously,  as  must  and  oil,  is 
called  dregless.  De  Sivrey  quotes  Palladius  as 
stating  the  same ;  this  first  flow  being  "  nobilius." 
The  Greek  word  here  referred  to,  as  all  lexicog- 


Honey  and  Unfermented  Wine.         383 

raphers  and  annotators  agree,  is  the  Greek  pri- 
vative term  "  akoitos,"  meaning  without  dregs 
or  sediment.  The  intimation  is  thus  clear,  at 
the  outset  of  PHny's  history,  that  both  Greeks 
and  Romans  recognized  the  spontaneously  flow- 
ing juice  of  the  grape  as  free  from  pulpy  admix- 
ture which  would  cause  sediment.  Pliny  here 
repeats  as  his  own  the  recommendation,  "  deci- 
mam  partem  apibus  relinqui  placet";,  it  is 
thought  proper  that  a  tenth  part  be  left  to  the 
bees. 

In  the  main,  though  with  exceptions,  Pliny 
treats  in  general  of  the  properties  of  plants, 
giving  a  large  place  to  the  vine,  from  his  twelfth 
to  his  sixteenth  book.  From  the  seventeenth  to 
the  twenty-third  book  he  speaks  specially  of  the 
nutritive  and  medicinal  properties  of  plants, 
making  the  vine  still  prominent ;  while  also,  in 
later  books,  his  allusions  to  products  of  the  vine 
are  frequent. 

At  xiv.  2,  the  word  "  defervere,"  rendered  by 
Dr.  Moore  (p.  104)  "  ferment,"  relates  to  the 
ceasing  of  effervescence,  as  we  have  seen,  in 
wines  designed  to  be  partially  fermented.  On 
the  term  "  sobriam,"  supposed  by  Dr.  Moore 
(p.  105)  to  refer  to  the  grape,  not  the  wines 
made  of  it,  and  on  the  word  "  inerticula,"  to 
which  it  is  applied,  found  as  it  is  in  connection 
with  Pliny's  mention  of  the  warning  of  Alex- 


384         The  Divine  Law  as  to    Wines. 

ander's  physician,  Hardouin  has  this  note  on 
the  adjective  "  inerticula,"  which  has  the  noun 
"vina"  understood:  **  which  the  Greeks  call 
ameikuson"  or  unintoxicating,  "  because  it  is 
inert  (iners)  in  exciting  the  nerves."  He  quotes 
Isidor,  L.  xvii.,  c.  5,  as  referring  also  to  these 
wines  (vina)  as  "innoxia."  De  Sivrey  also 
quotes  "  Isidore,"  and  paraphrases  "dtantm^me 
le  seul  (vin)  qui  n'enivre  point ";  being  the  only 
wine  that  does  not  intoxicate.  In  the  same 
connection  (xiv.  6)  Pliny,  after  mentioning  the 
formerly  celebrated  wines  of  the  Campagnia 
(Campania),  refers  to  three  varieties  of  the 
Faustinian,  the  pungent  (austerum),  the  sweet 
(dulce),  and  the  light  (tenue)  ;  and  states  that, 
though  once  celebrated,  they  have  lost  their 
character  through  the  neglect  (incuria)  of  the 
farmers.  In  referring  to  the  Gnidian  "  protro- 
pum "  mentioned  at  xiv.  7,  which  Dr.  Moore 
(p.  104)  does  not  regard  as  wine,  the  annota- 
tors  refer  to  xiv.  11,  where  it  is  described,  and 
where  it  will  be  considered. 

At  xiv.  9  occurs  the  passage  cited  by  Dr. 
Moore  in  full :  "  Medium  inter  dulcia  vinumque 
est,  quod  Graeci  aigleucos  vocant,  hoc  est  semper 
mustum.  Id  evenit  cura,  quoniam  fervere  pro- 
hibetur  ;  sic  appellant  musti  in  vina  transitum." 
Here,  first,  the  orthography  of  "  aigleukos," 
sometimes  written  "aeiglukos,"  and  the   form 


Grecian  "A'igleukos"  Unfermented  Wine.  385 

of  Latin  compounds  without  connection  or  hy- 
phen, as  "  semper  mustum,"  is  to  be  observed. 
Second,  the  text  should  be  regarded ;  Sillig, 
followed,  doubtless,  by  Dr.  Laurie  (Bib.  Sac, 
xxvi.,  p.  166),  omitting  the  "  que,"  probably  to 
make  the  translation  clearer,  while  other  editors 
retain  it.  Third,  the  word  "fervere"  means  to 
effervesce.  Fourth,  the  adjective  "  dulcia,"  as 
all  authorities  agree,  has  the  word  "  vina"  under- 
stood ;  De  Sivrey  calling  attention  to  the  head- 
ing preceding  "  De  dulcium  genera  xiv.,"  which 
he  renders,  "  Of  fourteen  kinds  of  sweet  wines." 
De  Sivrey  thus  paraphrases  the  text,  "  the  wine 
which  the  Greeks  call  aigleucos,  that  is  to  say, 
always  in  the  state  of  must,  holds  the  middle 
place  between  sweet  wines  and  common  wines. 
It  is  preserved  in  that  state  by  preventing  it 
from  effervescing  (de  bouillir),  and  conse- 
quently from  becoming  changed  into  veritable 
wine  (veritable  vin)."  Hardouin  has  this  note: 
'"  Vinum  quod  est  semper  dulce,  sive  mustum, 
quia  fervere  prohibetur  " ;  wine  which  is  always 
sweet,  or  must,  because  it  is  prevented  from 
effervescing.  The  Italian  of  Domenicho  is  in 
accord.  As  to  the  method  of  manufacture,  De 
Sivrey  states,  "  Cette  manipulation  est  con- 
firmee par  Caton;  c.  120,"  this  mode  of  manu- 
facture is  confirmed  by  Cato,  chap.  1 20. 

At  xiv.    II,  Pliny's  statement  as  to  "  protro- 
17 


386         The  Divine  Law  as  to    Wines. 

pum "  is  :  "  Inter  haec  genera  potum  ponere 
debes  et  protropum ;  ita  appellata  a  quibusdam 
mustum  sponte  defluens,  antequam  calcentui 
uv£E  ";  among  these  kinds  of  drinks  you  ought 
to  place  also  protropum  ;  thus  is  called,  by  some 
must  flowing  spontaneously  before  the  grapes 
are  trodden.  These  words  the  French  Acad- 
emy's Dictionary  cites,  calling  it  a  kind  of  wine. 
De  Sivrey,  in  a  note,  calls  attention  to  its  classi- 
fication among  sweet  wines,  and  says,  "  It  is 
what  we  call  mere-goutte,  or  pure  drop";  which 
term  the  Academy  defines,  "  The  wine  which 
flows  from  the  vat  or  the  press  without  the 
grapes  having  been  pressed  ";  while  Surenne 
defines  it,  "wine  of  unpressed  grapes."  At 
xiv.  12  the  "  passi  genera"  are  called  by  De 
Sivrey  "  vins  cuits,"  cooked  wines,  or  "wines 
made  from  boiled  must  by  adding  water  ";  and 
in  a  note  he  states,  "  It  is  nearly  in  this  manner 
that  the  Turks  now  make  their  sherbets  "  (sor- 
bets). On  the  "  melititia  "  he  paraphrases :  "  the 
melititia,  that  is  to  say,  the  honied  (mielleux), 
is  also  of  the  class  of  sweet  wines."  These 
statements  prepare  the  student  to  find  French 
as  well  as  German  lexicographers  classifying 
Arab  "  sherbets  "  among  wines. 

At  xiv.  18  Pliny  prepares  his  readers  for  his 
significant  statements  in  the  next  chapter  by  the 
title  "  Prodigioea.  genera  vinorum,"  that  is,  "the 


Wines  in  Roman  Religious  Rites.      387 

kinds  of  wines  appropriate  for  religious  rites." 
The  essential  points  of  interpretation  relate  to 
this  statement  (xiv.  19)  :  "  Et  quoniam  religione 
vita  constat,  pro  libare  Diis  nefastum  habetur 
vina,  praeter  imputatae  vitis,  fulmine  tactae,  quam- 
que  juxta  hominis  mors  laqueo  pependerit,  aut 
vulneratis  pedibus  concalcata,  et  quod  circum- 
cisis  vinaceis  profluxerit,  aut  superne  deciduo 
immundiore  lapsu  aliquo  polluta.  Item  Graeca, 
quoniam  aquam  habeant.''  The  first  point  of 
criticism  is  the  fact  that  the  preposition  "  praeter," 
omitted  by  the  Elzevirs,  probably  because  of  a 
supposed  difficulty  of  interpretation,  is  inserted 
by  all  the  French  editors,  and  also  by  the  German 
Sillig ;  De  Sivrey  stating  in  a  note  that  "  all  the 
manuscripts  have  praeter."  The  important  point 
to  note  is,  that  in  Pliny  the  word  "  praeter  "  sig- 
nifies, as  Leverett  states,  "  over  and  above  ";  a 
meaning  which  is  really  the  original  meaning, 
since  in  Caesar  "  praeter  castra  "  means  "  outside 
of  the  camps  ";  while,  moreover,  all  compounds, 
as  the  English  word  "  preternatural,"  retain  the 
signification  of  something  over  or  added  to. 
Hence  De  Sivrey  paraphrases  the  passage  thus: 
"  Comme  la  religion  est  la  base  de  la  vie  humaine, 
il  convient  d'observer  qu'il  n'est  pas  permis  de 
faire  des  libations  aux  Dieux  avec  du  vin ;  non 
seulement  d'une  vigne  qui  n'aurait  pas  ete  tailli^," 
etc.     If  "  praeter  "  were  omitted,  the  sense  would 


388         The  Divine  Law  as  to    IVines. 

be  that  it  was  "  impious  to  offer  as  libations  to  the 
gods  wines  of  the  unpruned  vine,"  etc.,  or  that 
whose  grapes  were  so  covered  with  leaves  and 
twigs  that  they  did  not  ripen  sufficiently  to  fur- 
nish pure  saccharine  juice ;  a  result  in  keeping 
with  the  particulars  which  follow.  As,  however, 
"  praeter "  belongs  to  the  text,  the  sense  is,  as  at 
xiv.  12,  where  Numa's  prohibitory  law  against 
wines  is  cited;  that  all  wines  by  Roman  law 
are  regarded  as  inconsistent  with  the  spirit  of 
religion,  "  over  and  above  those  of  the  unpruned 
vine,"  etc.  In  illustration  of  the  exceptions  here 
made,  especially  of  diluted  Greek  wines,  De  Siv- 
rey  quotes  the  following  "  Droit  Pontifical,"  or 
Papal  bull,  of  the  middle  ages,  evidently  opposed 
both  to  the  Greek  Church  and  to  heretics:  "  Spur- 
cum  vinum  est,  quod  sacris  adhiberi  not  licet,  cui 
aqua  admixta  est,  defrutumve ;  aut  igne  tactum 
est,  mustumve  antequam  defervescat";  it  is  im- 
pure wine,  which  it  is  not  lawful  to  use  in  sacred 
rites,  in  which  water  is  admixed,  or  raisin-wine, 
or  that  touched  by  fire,  or  must  before  it  has 
ceased  to  effervesce.  The  expression  "  aquam 
habeant "  is  rendered  by  De  Sivrey,"  mM6s  d'eau," 
and  by  Domenicho,  "hanno  acqua."  The  state- 
ment of  Aquinas  is  thus  illustrated ;  the  custom 
of  the  Greek  Church  in  diluting  communion 
wine  is  seen  to  be  ancient ;  and  the  entire  view 
taken  of  this  passage  in  the  "  Divine  Law  as  to 
Wines"  is  confirmed. 


Unfermented   Wiites  for  the  Rich,     389 

At  xiv.  20,  in  the  expression  "  musta  in  primo 
fervore,"  De  Sivrey  renders  "musta"  by  "vins 
nouveaux,"  and  "ferveo"  by  "bouillir."  On  the 
phrase  xiv.  28,  "sacco  frangimus  vires,"  Hardouin 
makes  this  note :  "  Hinc  vinum  colatum,  sive 
saccatum,  altero  non  saccato  debilius  dulciusque  "; 
hence  wine  strained  by  the  basket  or  sack  is 
weaker  and  sweeter  than  other  wine  not  strained ; 
and  he  cites  Colum.,  ix.  15,  in  proof.  The  pas- 
sage cited  by  Dr.  Moore,  through  a  typographical 
error,  as  lib.  xvi.  c.  xxviii.,  which  should  be  xiv. 
28,  may  be  well  left  to  speak  for  itself.  At  xvii. 
2,  and  again  xviii.  11,  Pliny's  use  of  the  verbs 
"  effervesco  "  and  "  ferveo  "  is  illustrated  by  Har- 
douin's  note,"  fermentum  proprie dicitur depane  "; 
ferment  is  properly  said  of  bread.  At  xviii.  1 1 
attention  is  called  by  Hardouin  to  the  Latin 
"  fermentum  "  as  equivalent  to  the  Hebrew  "  seor." 
At  xviii.  30  the  word  "  effervesco,"  applied  to 
beans,  is  by  De  Sivrey  rendered  "  s'echauffer,"  to 
become  heated.  At  xix.  19  De  Sivrey  takes 
note  that  as  the  best  fruits  (poma)  were  inter- 
dicted to  the  poor  (pauperibus  interdicti),  so  the 
"  vina  saccisque  castrati,"  or  wines  deprived  of 
spirit  by  filters,  were  thus  emasculated  because 
the  wealthy  classes,  lacking  the  bodily  vigor  of 
the  laboring  classes,  were  unable  to  bear  strong 
wines ;  a  practical  conclusion  of  the  old  Romans, 
calling  on  the  wise  among  the  wealthy  of  modern 


390         The  Divine  Law  as  to    Wines. 

times  to  seek  to  guard  the  sons  of  fortune,  as 
well  as  the  sons  of  toil,  from  the  insidious  influ- 
ence of  intoxicants ;  a  fact  also  indicating  how 
science,  in  all  ages,  has  sought,  and  still  seeks,  to 
aid  wine-makers  in  diminishing,  if  not  eliminat- 
ing, the  alcohol  of  wines. 

At  xiv  24  are  presented  various  methods  of 
arresting  ferment  in  must,  of  which  the  sulphur 
fumes  still  employed,  according  to  Pancoucke, 
in  Southern  France,  are  manifestly  the  hereditary 
succession.  After  citing  several  Greek  author- 
ities, Pliny  writes :  "In  Africa  gypso  mitigat 
asperitatem  vini ;  nee  non  aliquibus  sui  partibus 
calce,  Graecia  argilla,  aut  marmore,  aut  sale,  aut 
mari  lenitatem  excitat ;  Italioe  pars  aliqua  nebu- 
lana  pice  ;  ac  resina  condire  musta  vulgare  est  ei, 
provinciisque  finitimis";  in  Africa  they  soften 
the  asperity  of  wine  with  gypsum  ;  and  also,  in 
some  parts  of  it,  with  chalk,  with  Grecian  potter's 
clay,  or  marble,  or  salt,  or  with  sea-water,  they 
promote  mildness ;  a  certain  part  of  Italy,  with 
crude  pitch  ;  also  it  is  common  to  it  and  the 
neighboring  provinces  to  treat  musts  with  resin. 
The  rendering  of  De  Sivrey,  here  followed,  and 
his  notes,  together  with  the  modern  knowledge 
of  the  chemical  action  thus  secured,  are  not  only 
a  study  for  wine-makers ;  but,  to  the  reader  seek- 
ing for  truth  as  to  Roman  wines,  they  are  an 
essential  guide  in  ascertaining  the  law  of  unfer- 


Roman  Medicinal  Wines  of '' Must^     391 

mentcd  wines.  Pliny  adds :  "  Nee  non  et  ex  ipso 
musto  fiunt  medicamenta ;  decocquitur,  ut  dul- 
cescat";  also  of  must  itself  medicaments  are 
made ;  it  is  boiled  that  it  may  become  sweet. 
In  this  connection  occurs  the  statement,  "  ratio 
autem  condiendi  musta,  in  primo  fervore,"  etc. ; 
but  the  method  of  treating  musts  in  the  first 
effervescence,  etc. ;  which  again  illustrates  Pliny's 
care  in  using  terms.  Speaking  further  of  the 
prepared  "  sapa,"  or  thoroughly  boiled  must, 
Pliny  mentions,  "  Et  in  hoc  genere,  et  in  omni 
alio,  subministrant  vasa  ipsa  condimentis  picis  "; 
both  in  this  and  every  other  kind  (of  preserved 
grape-juice)  they  prepare  the  jars  themselves  with 
solutions  of  pitch ;  indicating  that  not  only  oil, 
but  pitch  was  employed  to  guard  the  must  on 
every  side  from  contact  with  the  air.  At  this 
point  De  Sivrey,  as  elsewhere,  introduces  lengthy 
citations  from  a  scientific  treatise  on  wine- 
making  ;  in  which  these  statements  are  met : 
"  The  more  attentive  follow  the  precautions 
mentioned  by  Pliny.  When  they  propose  to 
make  the  best  wines  they  select  the  best  plants ; 
they  leave  the  fruit  to  attain  to  the  most  perfect 
maturity ;  they  cut  the  fruit  only  when  the  dews 
(rosees)  are  dissipated,  and  on  fair  days;  they, 
yet  more,  select  the  clusters  most  ripe,  and  those 
not  attacked  with  rust  (pourriture)  ;  and,  finally, 
thoy  pick  off  (cgrappent)  the   selected  grapes 


392         The  Divine  Law  as  to    Wines. 

....  The  grand  point  is  to  apply  oneself  so  as 
to  understand  well  the  suitable  degree  (le  degre 
convenable)  of  fermentation."  He  adds  that  the 
methods  taught  by  Pliny  must  be  modified,  "  be- 
cause of  the  climate  of  our  country,  so  different 
from  that  of  Italy."  In  this  note  mention  is 
made  at  length,  also,  of  "  omphalium,"  as  used 
for  preparing  wine  jars  in  which  musts  are  to  be 
preserved.  Here  reference  is  made  to  two  pas- 
sages in  Pliny.  At  xii.  27  he  says,  "oleum  et 
omphacium  est,"  there  is  also  an  unripe  oil ;  and 
then  he  proceeds  to  state  that  it  is  an  extract 
from  the  grape  and  other  fruits,  but  chiefly  from 
the  olive,  when  the  fruit  is  immature.  At  xxii.4, 
Pliny  again  mentions  "  omphacium  "  as  used  "  in 
unguentorum  loco,"  in  the  place  of  ointments, 
medicinal  as  well  as  crude.  The  writer  cited  by 
De  Sivrey  says :  ''Omphacium  is  what  the  French 
generally  call  verjus  (green-juice),  a  kind  of  oil 
(d'huile),  which  they  draw  from  the  olives  when 
they  are  yet  green  (vertes).  At  this  day  they 
call  oleum  omphalium  oil  drawn  from  the  olives 
when  they  begin  to  ripen.  They  obtain  less  oil 
when  they  take  the  olives  in  this  state,  but  it  is 
better."  The  confusion  of  the  Greek  terms 
"  omphakion  "  and  "  omphalion,"  the  one  indicat- 
ing the  consistency  of  an  immature,  pulpy  fruit, 
and  the  other  the  navel-shaped  form  of  the  same, 
may  or  may  not   be  designed.     On  the  word 


Oils  and  Resins  for  Air-tight  Flasks.    393 

"  subministrant  "  De  Sivrey  paraphrases,  "  on 
sert  en  tonneaux  poiss^s,"  they  preserve  it  in 
pitched  casks ;  and  he  cites  a  scientific  traveler 
in  the  Orient  as  stating,  "  they  put  pitch  in  the 
vat  (cuve),  but  they  also  coat  the  jars  with  resin 
(enduit  les  vases  de  resin)."  These  exhaustive 
citations  of  De  Sivrey,  only  minor  points  of 
which  are  given,  indicate  that  science  has  not  left 
the  earnest  searcher  for  the  law  of  restraining  and 
preventing  ferment  in  grape-juice  without  ample 
guidance ;  and  yet  that  modem  scholars,  and  es- 
pecially tourists  in  wine-growing  countries,  may 
fail,  as  in  New  York,  the  center  of  beer  and  wine 
preparation,  as  also  of  Hebrew  customs,  to  reach 
the  truth.  At  xix.  39  the  expression  "  lineis 
saccis"  indicates  the  fine  texture  of  the  filters 
used;  linen  being  a  thorough  strainer  for  the  juice 
of  the  grape.  At  xx.  17  the  generic  compre- 
hensiveness of  the  word  "  vinum "  appears  in 
the  statement,  "  fit  vinum  et  ex  aqua  ac  melle 
tantum,"  wine  is  made  from  water  and  honey 
only.  The  constantly  recurring  examples  noted 
by  French  experts  lead  their  annotators  to  use 
the  Latin  "  vinum,"  because  Pliny  so  used  it, 
with  all  the  latitude  of  the  French  "  vin  ";  vinum 
comprehending  not  only  wines  of  every  propor- 
tion of  alcoholic  admixture,  but  also  "  musts," 
which  have  no  alcohol. 

Prepared  by  the  anatomical  explanations  be- 
17* 


394         '^^^^  Divine  Law  as  to    Wines. 

fore  recorded,  Pliny  opens  his  twenty-third  book 
with  the  heading,  "  De  medicinis  uvarum  recen- 
tium,"  of  medicines  from  fresh  grapes.  At 
xxiii.  I  he  writes :  "  Uva  passa  ....  stomachum, 
ventrem,  interanea  tentaret,'  which  De  Sivrey 
renders, "  le  raisin  sec  ....  est  nuisible  k  I'esto- 
mac,  au  ventre  et  aux  entrailles,"  the  dried  grape 
is  injurious  to  the  stomach,  the  digestive  organs 
generally,  and  to  the  intestines.  At  xxiii.  i8 
occurs  the  passage  quoted  in  part  by  Dr.  Moore : 
"  Mustum  omne  stomacho  inutile,  venis  jucun- 
dum."  De  Sivrey,  regarding  the  last  clause 
as  the  important  part  of  the  statement,  thus 
renders  the  expression  :  "  Toute  espece  de  moiit, 
ou  vin  nouveau,  est  salutaire  aux  veines ;  mais 
nuisible  h.  I'estomac  ";  every  kind  of  must,  or  new 
wine,  is  healthful  to  the  circulatory  organs,  but 
is  injurious  to  the  digestive  organs.  It  is  plain 
that  the  conditions  of  health  and  of  weakness  of 
the  stomach  are  before  Pliny ;  and  that  the  fresh 
grape-juice  which  might,  if  undigested,  prove  an 
irritant,  is  invigorating  when  so  digested  as  to 
pass  into  the  circulation.  The  rendering  of  Do- 
menicho  is  in  accord  with  this  view ;  and  the 
corresponding  statement  at  xxiii.  i  is  recalled 
by  Hardouin  :  "  Sapa  quoque  stomacho  inutiles 
facit";  boiled  must  acts  injuriously  on  the  stom- 
ach. De  Sivrey  quotes  in  illustration  Diosco- 
rides  (v.  3)  ;  who  states  that  raisins,  or  dried 


Wines  Fattening  or  Strengthening.     395 

grapes,  remove  flatulency,  and  thus  "  utiles  fiunt 
stomacho  itegrisque"  are  made  useful  to  the 
stomach,  even  in  the  sick.  De  Sivrey  farthei 
states  that  "  sapa  "  or  boiled  must,  "  causes  the 
appetite  to  return."  In  the  same  connection  i' 
the  statement  which  led  the  French  encyclo 
paedist  to  the  remark :  "  The  ancients  generall)' 
made  must  the  base  of  their  medicinal  wines." 
After  enumerating  (xxiii.  18)  various  medicinal 
preparations  of  fresh,  boiled,  and  spiced  must, 
Pliny  says:  "  Cura  differentias  innumerabiles 
facit ";  care  effects  innumerable  differences.  As 
if  readers  needed  the  mention,  Hardouin  here 
adds  the  note  :  "  Mustum,  vinum  novum ;  unde 
musteum  vocatur  quicquid  novellum";  must, 
new  wine  ;  whence  whatever  is  novel  is  called 
musty.  The  English,  living  outside  the  wine 
region,  give  a  precisely  opposite  meaning  to  the 
Latin  term  "  musty." 

At  XX 'J.  22,  again,  are  met  nice  distinctions 
in  the  use  of  terms  by  Pliny,  which  indicate 
that  only  scientific  experts  can  be  expected  to 
bring  out  the  law  alike  of  scientific  fact  and  of 
linguistic  usage,  which  insures  the  attainment  of 
truth.  Three  statements  here  made  are  signifi- 
cant. Referring  to  the  three  classes  of  wines 
noted  among  the  Falernian  at  xiv.  6,  Pliny 
says :  "  Dulce  minus  inebriat,  sed  stomacho  nu- 
trit " ;  and  again :   "  Tenue  et    austerum    minus 


396         The  Divine  Law  as  to    Wines. 

alit,  magis  stomachum  nutrit."  The  distinction 
between  the  two  verbs  "  alo  "  and  "  nutrio,"  here 
vital  to  the  understanding  of  Pliny's  two  state- 
ments, must  be  sought  in  comparative  philology. 
Schrevelius,  comparing  the  Greek  and  Latin, 
defines  "  alo  "  by  "  piaino,"  to  fatten,  and  "  chi- 
leno,"  to  feed,  as  cattle;  indicating  that  it- is 
increase  in  bulk,  in  corpulency,  which  "alo" 
denotes.  On  the  other  hand,  he  defines  "  nutrio  " 
by  "  trepho,"  which  is  derived  from  a  word  mean- 
ing to  strengthen,  or  invigorate ;  thus  indicating 
that  "  nutrio "  means  to  improve  the  quality, 
rather  than  the  quantity,  of  the  flesh  which  it 
nourishes.  The  first  should,  then,  be  rendered, 
"  The  sweet  intoxicates  less,  but  gives  healthful 
vigor  to  the  stomach  " ;  while  the  second  should 
be  translated, "  The  light,  also  the  pungent,  make 
less  flesh,  but  more  invigorate  the  digestive  or- 
gans." On  the  first  statement,  Hardouin  quotes 
Dioscorides  v.  8,  that  sweet  wines  have  a  tend- 
ency "  stomachum  inflare,"  to  cause  wind  in  the 
stomach ;  while  De  Sivrey  adds  the  comment, 
•'  Restent  long  temps  sur  I'estomac  " ;  remain  a 
long  time  on  the  stomach.  On  the  second,  De 
Sivrey  has  this  paraphrase :  "  Ceux  qui  sont 
verds,  et  qui  ont  peu  de  corps,  sont  bons  ^  I'es- 
tomac, quoiqu'ils  nourissent  moins";  those 
which  are  unmatured,  and  which  have  little  body, 
are  good  for  the  stomach,  although  they  give 


Conclusions  from  Pliny  on    Wines.     397 

iess  nourishment.  A  third  associated  statement 
is  this:  "  Vinum,  si  sit  fumo  inveteratum,  insalu- 
berrimum  est " ;  wine,  if  it  be  made  to  last  by- 
being  smoked,  is  most  unhealthful.  The  wine 
of  modern  Strasburg,  cited  by  Pancoucke,  will 
here  be  re-called.  On  the  general  statements  of 
Pliny  in  this  chapter,  xxiii.  22,  Ajasson,  guided 
by  the  researches  of  the  French  chemists  and 
physicians,  whom  he  cites,  says:  "Toute  ce  que 
Pline  va  nous  dire  sur  les  proprietes  du  vin  ne 
serait  pas  avoue  par  les  medecins  modernes  ";  all 
that  Pliny  goes  on  to  tell  as  to  the  properties  of 
wine  would  not  be  admitted  by  modern  physi- 
cians. 

At  xxiii.  24  Pliny  indicates  plainly  that  he 
includes  must  as  a  species,  among  wines  as  the 
genus.  The  heading  of  the  preceding  chapter 
(xxiii.  23),  "  Observationes  circa  vina,"  observa- 
tions about  wines,  is  followed  by  about  sixty  suc- 
cessive recipes,  as  the  French  interpreters  note, 
which  fill  several  chapters.  In  xxiii.  24  he  begins, 
"  Nunc  circa  aegritudines  sermo  de  vinis  exit," 
now  our  discourse  will  be  of  wines  for  sicknesses. 
Here  occurs  the  expression,  "  Utilissimus  omni- 
bus sacco  viribus  fractis";  the  most  useful  for 
all  are  those  whose  strength  is  broken  by  the 
filter;  De  Sivrey  indicating  that  for  the  healthy, 
us  truly  as  for  the  sick,  the  wines  thus  weakened 
of  alcoholic  properties  are  the  best.     Pliny  here 


398         The  Divine  Law  as  to    Wifies. 

adds:  "  Meminerimus  saccum  est,  qui  fervendo 
vires  e  musto  sibi  fecerit,"  which  De  Sivrey  para- 
phrases, "  On  doit  se  souvenir  que  le  vin  de  quel- 
que  esp^ce,  qu'il  puisse  etre,  est  un  sue,  qui, 
n'ayant  d'abords  ete  que  du  moiit,  c'est-i-dire  une 
liqueur  douce  et  nullement  spiritueuse,"  etc.  "  It 
should  be  remembered  that  wine,  of  whatever 
kind  it  may  be,  is  a  juice,  which,  having  been  at 
first  only  must,  that  is  to  say,  a  liquor  sweet 
and  in  no  respect  alcoholic,"  etc.  Here,  cer- 
tainly, De  Sivrey  regards  Pliny  as  using  "  vi- 
num  "  with  the  same  breadth  of  meaning  as  the 
French  use  "  vin  ";  that  is,  as  a  genus  under  which 
every  beverage  made  of  grape  is  classed.  Cita- 
tions without  limit  might  be  made  to  the  same 
effect.  Those  made  have  been  multiplied  only 
that  the  usage  which  must  decide  in  Biblical 
criticism  may  be  assured. 

WINES    IN    ROMAN    GENERAL    LITERATURE. 

While  the  Roman  agricultural  writers  use 
terms  relating  to  wines  in  their  popular  or  scien- 
tific meaning  in  stating  their  nature,  mode  of 
manufacture,  properties,  and  uses,  poets,  histori- 
ans, and  moralists  even,  are  expected  to  be  figu- 
rative and  less  specific  in  their  employ  of  words. 
The  general  usage,  cited  from  Virgil  and  other 
writers  in  the  former  pages  of  "  Divine  Law  as 
to  Wines."  are  generally  accepted  as  correct.   To 


Horace  on  Wines  inconsistent         399 

this  general  fact,  however,  the  inconstant  and 
inconsistent  Horace,  like  Byron,  now  convivial, 
now  sober,  gives  occasion  for  doubt  as  to  his 
real  meaning.  The  interpretations  of  his  allu- 
sions to  Lesbian  and  Falernian  wines  are  speci- 
ally obscure ;  and  hence  experts  alone  can  give 
assured  testimony.  On  the  expression  "  inno- 
centis  pocula  Lesbii "  of  Horace,  Carm.  I.  1 7, 
French  annotators  direct  attention  to  Pliny's 
statement,  xiv.  17:  "  His  addidit  Lesbium  Era- 
sistrati  maximi  medici  auctoritas ";  to  these  the 
authority  of  Erasistratus,  the  most  eminent 
physician,  adds  the  Lesbian.  It  is  of  sweet 
wines  in  their  medicinal  virtue  Pliny  is  speaking. 
On  this  Hardouin  has  this  note :  "  Quo  nullum 
suavius  aiunt  Alexis  et  Archestratus " ;  than 
which  none  is  sweeter,  say  Alexis  and  Archestra- 
tus ;  whose  records,  as  poets  of  the  Alexandrine 
age,  Hardouin  cites.  De  Sivrey  paraphrases 
Pliny's  words  thus:  "Nul  vin  ne  I'emportait 
sur  celui-ci  pour  la  douceur  ";  no  wine  surpasses 
this  in  sweetness.  As  to  the  Falernian,  as 
noticed,  Horace  names  four  distinct  varieties,  of 
which  the  "honey-sweet"  (Serm.  H,  ii.  15,  16) 
was  a  favorite;  its  varieties  being  products  of 
one  of  the  best  vine-growing  regions  of  Italy. 
Pliny  (xiv.  6)  speaks,  as  we  have  observed,  of 
three  kinds :  the  pungent  (asperum),  the  light 
(tenu  ),  and  the  sweet  (dulce)  ;  and  he  states 


400         The  Divine  Law  as  to    Wines. 

that  they  owed  their  superiority  "  to  the  great 
care  and  attention  bestowed  on  their  manufac- 
ture." The  important  facts  to  observe  are 
these :  that  two  out  of  three  varieties  were  wines 
slightly  alcoholic,  and  that  modern  Italian  writ- 
ers on  wines  regard  the  "  Lachrymse  Christi," 
originally  a  "  protropos,"  to  be  the  virtual  succes- 
sor to  the  Falernian.  All  light  and  sweet  wines 
result  from  an  effort  so  to  increase  the  propor- 
tion of  saccharine  juice  in  the  ripening  grape,  or 
so  to  arrest  fermentation,  as  to  diminish  the  pro- 
portion of  alcohol ;  an  effort  which  resulted  in 
the  better  days  of  Egyptian  and  Roman  historians 
in  the  entire  prevention  of  alcoholic  ferment. 

GREEK    WRITERS    ON    WINES. 

The  abstracts  from  the  records  of  Greek 
writers,  historians,  and  poets,  physicians  and  phi- 
losophers, who  commend  unintoxicating  wines, 
has  found  few  points  for  critical  objection.  The 
citation  of  Dr.  Moore  from  Hippocrates,  though 
from  one  of  the  later  writings  attributed  to  him, 
deserves  notice.  The  passage  is :  "  Gleukos 
phusa  kai  hypagei ;  kai  ektarassetai  zeon  en  te 
koilie  ";  preserved  must  causes  wind  and  purges, 
and  excites  cholic  in  the  abdomen.  The  term 
"  koilia,"  as  already  indicated,  is  by  Aristotle,  in 
his  "Anatomy  of  Animals,"  used  in  a  general 
signification,  referring  to  the  stomach  or  lower 


Greek  Writers  on  Wines  Scientific.      401 

viscera,  according  as  the  adverbs  "  ana "  or 
'  kata,"  used  with  it,  indicate.  The  word  "  gleu- 
kos"  is  not  classic,  not  appearing  till  the  age  of 
the  Alexandrine  writers ;  yet  this  statement, 
though  made  at  a  later  day  by  one  of  his  school, 
is  in  keeping  with  the  actual  writings  of  Hip- 
pocrates, as  it  is  also  with  those  of  Dioscorides 
and  of  Pliny,  already  quoted.  The  citations 
from  Herodotus  of  the  designations,  (ii.  37) 
"oinos  ampelinos,"  grape-wine;  (ii.  'j'])  "  oinos 
ek  kritheOn,"  barley-wine;  and  (ii.  86)  ''oinos 
phoinikeios,"  palm-wine,  are  correctly  interpreted ; 
but  they  do  not  conflict  with  the  statement  of 
Greek  and  Latin  writers  as  to  the  wine  drunk 
by  Egyptian  priests.  The  quotation  from  Plato 
(Nom.  1.  iv.)  shows  in  itself  that  the  "  madden- 
ing (mainomenos)  wine  "  had  also  a  counterpart 
in  another  opposite  kind  of  the  "  sober  (nephon) 
deity  ";  the  very  staten  ent  indicating  that  there 
was  in  Plato's  day,  which  was  that  of  Aristotle, 
an  unintoxicating  wine.  Plato's  prolonged  argu- 
ment in  the  first  and  second  books  of  his  laws 
is  in  harmony  with  this  statement,  as  it  is  also 
with  Aristotle. 

The  distinctive  nature  and  effects  of  wine  are 
established  by  Aristotle ;  whose  original  re- 
searches, as  compared  with  the  able  compilations 
of  Pliny,  won  the  life-long  admiration  of  Agas- 
siz.    The  remarkable  statement  in  his  last  course 


402         The  Divine  Law  as  to    Wines. 

of  lectures  given  at  Cambridge  by  Agassiz,  that 
Aristotle  had  not  only  anticipated  many  modern 
discoveries,  but  that  many  of  his  statements 
could  not  be  rightly  interpreted  until  the  phe- 
nomena to  which  they  refer  had  been  re-discov- 
ered, has  special  force  with  one  who  attempts 
to  comprehend  all  his  statements  as  to  wines. 
Hence  the  recent  experiments  of  Pasteur  on  the 
saccharine  juice  of  the  grape  throw  new  light 
on  the  passage  (Meteor,  iv.  9),  whose  interpreta- 
tion is  again  called  in  question.  The  passage 
occurs,  as  indicated  heretofore,  in  an  indirect 
statement  as  to  the  evaporizing  and  solidifying 
properties  of  certain  liquids ;  and  the  Greek  text 
is  as  follows:  "Oinos,  d'  ho  men  glukus,  thumi- 
atai.  Pion  gar,  kai  tauta  poiei  to  elaio  ;  gar  hypo 
psuchous  pegnutai,  kaietai  te.  Esti  d'  onomati 
oinos ;  ergS  d'  ouk  estin ;  ou  gar  oinodes  ho  chu- 
mos,  dio  kai  ou  methuskei";  wine,  the  sweet, 
^  indeed,  evaporates ;  for,  being  glutinous,  it  also 
in  these  respects  acts  like  oil ;  for  under  cold,  it 
becomes  viscid,  and  is  inflammable.  It  is,  indeed, 
in  name  wiiw ;  in  its  operation,  however,  it  is 
not,  for  the  liquid  is  not  wine-like ;  wherefore 
also,  it  does  not  intoxicate.  The  interpretation 
formerly  given  to  this  passage  is  confirmed  in 
every  particular  by  the  French  writers  quoted. 
As  with  the  "  vins  mutes"  of  modern  Strasbourg 
it  is  not  opposition  to  the  popular  verdict  as  to 


Special  Light  from  Greek  Physicians.   403 

the  name  by  which  it  should  be  called  that  the 
scientific  writer  would  indicate.  Aristotle  among 
the  Greeks,  like  the  medical  encyclopedist 
among  modern  French  wine-makers,  simply  em- 
phasizes the  fact  that  there  is  a  wine,  properly 
so-called,  which  has  not  the  intoxicating  quality 
of  fermented  wines. 

The  special  interest  which  German  and 
French  writers  on  wines  have  always  shown  in 
the  Greek  medical  writers,  the  works  of  four  of 
whom  are  extant,  and  the  new  light  they  cast  on 
the  use  of  unfermented  grape-juice,  calls  for  a 
brief  reference  to  these  associated  works.  They 
may  be  found  in  several  editions  separated  from 
each  other;  they  are  brought  together  in  the 
Leipsic  edition,  182 1,  of  thirty  volumes,  entitled 
"  Medicorum  Grsecorum  Operae,  quae  extant." 
Of  these  twenty-two  vols,  are  filled  with  the 
preserved  works  of  Galen ;  two  with  the  works 
of  Hippocrates  and  of  his  school ;  three  with 
those  of  Dioscorides  ;  and  two  of  Aristseus.  The 
"  Aphorisms  "  of  Hippocrates,  who  flourished 
about  B.C.  420,  still  used  by  medical  students 
in  France,  have  already  been  cited.  The  pas- 
sage cited  by  Dr.  Moore,  as  noticed,  is  from  one 
of  his  school  of  a  much  later  date.  It  is  but 
part  of  a  lengthy  statement,  in  which  it  is  men- 
tioned that  "  gleukos,"  or  preserved  must,  "  acts 
as    a   purgative   (diachoreei)    on    the   bowels." 


404         The  Divine  Law  as  to    Wines. 

Dioscorides  (who  wrote  about  a.d.  60,  specially 
on  Materia  Medica  "  Hyles  latrikes),  devotes 
his  Fifth  Book  mainly  to  the  medicinal  proper- 
ties of  preparations  of  grape-juice,  almost  num- 
berless. At  c.  9  he  says  of  "sweet  wine"  that 
it  is  "  flatulent  (pneumatikos)  to  the  stomach 
and  bowels,"  adding,  "  as  is  also  preserved  must 
(gleukos.")  At  c.  1 1  he  mentions  among  others 
that  thick  (pacheis)  wines  are  clogging  to  the 
stomach ;  being  flatulent  (physodeis)  yet  pro- 
ducing flesh."  On  the  other  hand,  he  states : 
"The  thin  (leptoi)  wines  are  less  flesh-pro- 
ducing." At  c.  15  he  says:  "Honied  wine 
(oinos  melitites)  is  given  in  chronic  fevers  (chro- 
niois  pyretois)  to  those  having  a  weak  stomach." 
Aristseus,  about  a.d.  100,  writing  on  the 
"  causes,  signs  and  cures "  of  disease,  makes 
these  statements :  "  The  use  of  wine  causes 
angina  pectoris,  hemorrhage  from  the  head, 
inflammation  of  the  liver,  insanity,  paralysis, 
apoplexy;  and  is  the  most  frequent  cause  of 
disease."  "  Wine  is  a  medicament  in  cholera  and 
syncope,  though  its  use  is  attended  with  danger." 
Galen,  the  voluminous  writer,  who  cites  his  pre- 
decessors largely  on  nutritives  (trophon),  B.  ii., 
c.  9,  states:  "Grapes  nourish  less  than  figs," 
since  its  "  crude  juice  (chymos,  whence  the  word 
*  chyme  ')  is  not  easily  changed  into  blood  ";  but 
he  adds  that  the  "  simple  saccharine  juice  (chy- 


*'Oinos''  and  "Gleukos"  in  N.   Testame7it  405 

los,  whence  the  word  'chyle'),  which  the  common 
people  call  gleukos,  is  more  easily  digested."  It 
is  manifestly  the  "protropos"  which  the  "com- 
mon people"  thus  designate  "gleukos."  Re- 
peating other  statements  as  to  "gleukos,"  mani- 
festly the  pure  saccharine  juice  of  the  grape,  of 
a  kindred  character,  Galen  on  "  Simple  Reme- 
dies "  (aplooh)  states,  B.  ix.,  c.  215:  "Wine  is 
of  the  second  rank  (taxis)  in  heating  (thermai- 
nontion)  prescriptions  ;  old  wine  is  of  third,  and 
preserved  must  ('  gleukos '  of  the  people,  seen 
to  be  *  protropos  ')  is  of  the  first  rank." 

The  brief  consideration,  in  closing  these  refer- 
ences to  Greek  writers,  of  the  two  words  for 
wines  found  in  the  later  Alexandrine  writers,  is 
here  appropriate,  since  they  are  found  in  the 
Greek  translation  of  the  Old  Testament  made 
under  the  successors  of  Alexander,  as  well  as  in 
the  New  Testament.  The  generic  word  is 
"  oinos  ";  cognate,  as  already  observed,  with  the 
Latin  "  vinum,"  and  with  all  its  successors  in  the 
languages  of  modern  Europe.  It  is  sufficient 
here  to  observe  that  it  is  the  Mltimate  genus, 
covering  all  beverages  made  from  grape-juice  ;  as 
has  been  seen  in  Aristotle,  the  father  of  logical 
distinctions  as  to  terms,  in  the  quotation  just  con- 
sidered. The  other  distinctive  term  is  "  gl-'ukos  "; 
not  found  in  the  Greek  language  until  after  the 
age  of  Aristotle  and  his  successors,  when  the  in- 


4o6        The  Divine  Law  as  to   Wines. 

fluence  of  Asiatic  tongues  seems  to  have  led  to 
the  formation  of  this  neuter  noun  from  the  adjec- 
tive "  glukus,"  sweet.  The  revised  Greek  The- 
saurus of  Stephanus,  Paris,  1833,  has  the  defini- 
tion :  "  gleukos,  Lat.  mustum,  Fr.  mout."  The 
former  English  edition,  London,  i8i6-t8,  defines 
"  gleukos,  mustum,  must."  It  adds,  "  mustum 
decoctum,  defrutum," giving  numerous  citations; 
showing  that  the  term  "gleukos"  designates  a 
species  of  true  wines  under  which  there  are  sev- 
eral varieties ;  that  among  these  varieties  are  the 
boiled  musts  (mustum  decoctum)  of  which  Mo- 
hammedan Arabs  make  "  sherbets ";  and  that 
among  them  also  are  properly  classed  the  syrups 
formed  from  the  boiled  juices  of  the  grape  and  of 
other  fruits,  spiced  and  sweetened,  which  are  used 
in  modern  meads,  and  in  effervescing  soda  waters. 
Again,  Passow,  in  his  German-Greek  Lexicon 
Leipzig,  1 84 1,  has  this  specially  significant  defi 
nition  :  "  Gleukos,  ungegohrner  od.  eingekockter 
susser  wein,"  unfermented  or  boiled  sweet  wine. 
These  combined  definitions  of  "gleukos"  include 
thus  the  four  varieties  found  by  Fuerst  to  be  in- 
cluded in  the  Hebrew  "tirosh."  That  the  mod- 
ern Greek  inherits  the  usage  of  the  Alexandrine 
tongue  used  by  the  Greek  translators  of  the  Old 
Testament,  and  by  the  writers  of  the  New  Test- 
ament, is  seen  in  the  following  citations.  In  the 
comprehehsive  "  Lexicon  Hellenikon  "  of  Gaze, 


Modern  "Gleukos''  ranked  as  Wine.     407 

Venice,  1809,  are  found  these  two  definitions: 
"  Gleukos ;  ho  moustos,  etoi  ho  glukus  oinos,  ho 
opoios  den  ebrasen  akome ;  to  apostalagma  tes 
staphules  piein  brase  ";  "  Gleukos ;  must,  that  is 
sweet  wine ;  that  which  is  immediately  boiled  ; 
the  dripping  of  the  cluster  boiled  to  drink." 
Besides  this  term,  handed  down  from  the  days 
of  the  Ptolemies,  the  following  also  is  found  in 
modern  Greek :  "  Gleuxis ;  oinos,  polyhepsema 
echon  ;  moustos  brasomenos  kai  glukus ;  to  para 
tois  Turkois":  Gleuxis,  wine  having  much  boil- 
ing ;  must  boiled  and  sweet ;  that  now  found 
among  the  Turks.  Under  the  word  "  hepsema," 
one  of  the  definitions  is  "  sapa";  showing  the  con- 
nection of  modern  Greek  and  Turkish  products 
of  the  grape  with  the  ancient  Greek  and  Roman  ; 
and  especially  demonstrating,  that,  by  native 
Greeks,  "  musts,"  in  their  different  forms,  have 
always  been  classed  among  wines.  In  the  Lex- 
icon published  at  Athens,  1835,  soon  after  the 
Greek  nation  became  independent,  a  lexicon 
founded  mainly  on  that  of  Gaze,  this  definition  is 
found  :  "  Gleukos ;  ho  moustos,  e  ho  hepsemenos 
glukus  oinos ;  ho  opoios  etoi  aph'  heautou  den 
ebrasen  akome,  e  ebrasthe  technikOs":  gleukos; 
must,  or  cooked  sweet  wine ;  that,  indeed,  which 
has  effervesced  of  itself  immediately,  cfr  has  been 
made  to  boil  artificially.  1  he  Greek-French 
Lexicon,   published    at   Athens,    1846,    defines 


4o8  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

"  brazo "  {aorist  ebrasa)  by  "  faire  bouillir,"  to 
cause  to  effervesce.  Sophocles,  in  his  modern 
Greek  Lexicon,  Boston,  1870,  mentions  the 
adjective  form,  "gleukinos";  which  he  defines 
"  new  wine,  must."  The  testimony  of  the  Greek 
language,  in  which  the  term  "  gleukos  "  has  been 
perpetuated  for  twenty-one  centuries,  is  unvary- 
ing as  to  its  signification ;  teaching  the  fact  that 
language  stereotypes  truth  for  all  ages. 

THE  HEBREW  A  UNIVERSAL  LANGUAGE  OF  INTER- 
COMMUNICATION. 

The  Hebrew  of  the  Old  Testament,  like  the 
Greek  of  the  New  Testament,  was  a  language 
prepared  by  Divine  Providence  to  be  the  earlier, 
as  the  Greek  was  the  later,  depository  of  divine 
revelation  deemed  essential  to  be  communicated 
to  all  nations  of  mankind.  Its  history  illustrates 
the  fact  that  its  list  of  words  was  comprehensive, 
and  its  grammatical  structure  intermediate  among 
the  last  and  most  perfectly  elaborated  tongues. 
The  original  Semitic  language  was  the  Chaldee 
of  Abraham's  ancestry ;  whose  links  to  the  old 
Zend,  the  original  of  the  Indo-European  family 
of  languages,  are  becoming  more  and  more  ap- 
parent. The  first  modification  of  the  tongue 
spoken  by  Abraham  and  his  descendants  began 
in  Aram,  high  up  on  the  Euphrates,  called  Syria 
by  the  Greek  translators  of  the  Old  Testament ; 


The  Hebrew  a  Universal  Language.    409 

in  which  land,  whither  he  had  gone  with  his 
father  Terah,  as  Moses  intimates  (Deut.  xxvi.  5), 
the  Hebrew  patriarch  was  "a  Syrian  ready  to 
perish  ";  and  where  Jacob,  his  grandson,  came  to 
understand,  if  not  use,  the  language  of  his  kin- 
dred (Gen.  XXV.  20).  The  distinct  character  of 
that  language,  called  "  Syriac  "  in  our  version,  but 
now  styled  "  Aramean,"  is  brought  out  in  the 
history  of  Jacob  (Gen.  xxxi.  47),  of  Hezekiah 
(2d  Kings  xviii.  26),  and  of  Daniel  (Dan.  ii.  4). 
The  second  modification  of  the  Hebrew  lan- 
guage was  made  in  Canaan,  where  Abraham  and 
his  descendants,  and  Israel  in  all  their  history  as 
a  nation,  had  their  home.  The  controlling  influ- 
ence of  this  association  is  seen  from  the  days  of 
Abraham  to  Jehoshaphat,  in  the  commercial  and 
social  intercourse  of  the  Hebrew  and  Phoenician 
people ;  as  appears  in  both  the  written  alphabet, 
in  the  vocabulary,  and  in  the  grammar  of  the 
two  languages.  The  Hebrews,  like  the  Greeks, 
derived  their  first  alphabet  from  the  Phoenicians ; 
as  is  seen  in  the  copies  of  the  books  of  Moses 
preserved  among  the  modern  Samaritans.  The 
likeness  of  words,  and  of  their  structure,  is  seen 
in  the  Poenulus,  or  little  Carthaginian  of  Plau- 
tus ;  who,  as  the  son  of  an  Umbrian  freedman, 
whose  father  was  familiar  with  the  Carthaginian 
occupation  of  Italy  by  Hannibal,  had  both  the 
spirit  and  the  ability  to  preserve  treasures  of  the 


4IO  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

Punic,  or  African  Phoenician  language.  In  act  v. 
scene  i,  of  his  Poenulus,  Plautus  gives  a  brief 
soliloquy  of  Hanno,  a  Carthaginian,  in  his  native 
tongue ;  which  soliloquy  he  repeats  in  a  Latin 
translation  for  his  readers ;  guided  by  which  trans- 
lation able  Hebrew  scholars  have  been  enabled 
to  put  the  speech  of  Hanno,  written  in  Roman 
letter,  into  both  Phoenician  and  Hebrew  charac- 
ters, and  thus  show  their  almost  perfect  oneness. 
The  Hebrew,  by  this  second  modification,  became 
a  commercial  tongue. 

The  third  modification  of  the  Hebrew  lan- 
guage came  from  the  residence  of  the  descend- 
ants of  Israel  more  than  two  centuries  in  Egypt ; 
where  Joseph  became  conversant  with  the  Egyp- 
tian language,  as  contrasted  with  the  Hebrew 
(Gen.  xlii.  23),  and  where  Moses  became  "  learned 
in  all  the  wisdom  of  the  Egyptians "  (Acts  vii. 
22).  A  succession  of  Greek  and  Roman  his- 
torians indicate  that  the  learned  fraternity  who 
ruled  in  Egypt  in  the  days  of  Joseph  and  Moses 
were  allied  to  the  Chaldean  wise  men,  and  to  the 
Brahmins  who  wrote  the  Vedas ;  a  truth  illus- 
trated by  the  fact  that  the  Magians  of  Cairo 
Egypt,  to  this  day  use  the  Sanscrit  language,  and 
claim  the  title  of  "hakim,"  or  "wise  men,"  used 
by  Moses  in  his  records.  Bunsen,  in  his  "  Egypt's 
Place  in  History,"  makes  these  comments  on  the 
complete   vocabulary  of  the  ancient   Egyptian 


Modifications  of  the  Hebrew.  411 

language,  which  he  inserts  (vol.  iv.,  b.  v.,  pt.  ii., 
sect.  1 1,  pp.  1 23-4)  :  "  The  language  of  primitive 
Asia,  the  deposit  of  which  is  preserved  in  Egyp- 
tian, was  Semito-Arian,  not  yet  individualized  : 
in  which,  however,  the  Semitic,  or  West-Asiatic 
element,  decidedly  predominates.  ....  It  can 
be  demonstrated  that  the  larger  half  of  all  the 
ancient  and  modern  Egyptian  words  now  extant 
are  historically,  that  is  by  natural  descent,  con- 
nected with  the  Semitic,  and,  as  regards  the 
original  roots,  with  the  Arian  also."  The  careful 
student  will  find  that  Gesenius  traces  fully  one- 
tenth  of  the  Hebrew  roots,  including  chiefly 
words  relating  to  science  and  art,  to  their  Indo 
European  cognates,  usually  including  the  San- 
scrit;  while  he  traces  more  than  one-fifteenth, 
including  mainly  words  of  the  common  people, 
to  the  opposite  family  of  languages,  the  Coptic 
and  Ethiopic.  It  is  manifest  that  this  third 
stage,  the  first  in  its  literary  history,  prepared  the 
Hebrew  to  serve  as  the  language  of  law  and  of 
religious  doctrine. 

The  fourth  modification  in  the  Hebrew  tongue, 
the  second  in  its  literary  history,  was  brought 
about  by  connection  in  a  new  relation,  as  a  lead- 
ing nation,  with  the  Phoenicians  and  Greeks  on 
the  one  side,  and  with  India  and  Ethiopia  on  the 
other  side ;  when  commerce,  social  and  learned 
intercourse,  and  association   with    the   reigning 


412  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

families  of  Syria,  Arabia,  Egypt,  and  India, 
brought  in  new  arts  and  with  them  new  words , 
which  words  stud  the  historical  records  of  the 
kings  of  Israel  and  Judah,  as  they  do  the  writings 
of  the  royal  poets  and  of  the  inspired  prophets. 
The  fifth  modification  of  the  Hebrew  tongue,  the 
third  and  last  of  Old  Testament  literature,  was 
that  of  the  captivity  of  Babylonia.;  which  period, 
from  the  conquest  over  the  kingdom  of  Israel  to 
the  time  of  Nehemiah  and  Malachi,  covered  more 
than  three  centuries.  In  this  period  the  great 
transition  was  this :  the  copying  of  all  the  He- 
brew Scriptures,  those  of  Moses  included,  from 
the  Phoenician  into  the  Chaldee  letter  ;  while  also, 
to  give  a  permanent  monument  of  the  changes 
which  had  come  over  the  language  since  the 
time  when  Abraham  spoke  Chaldee,  documents 
in  pure  Chaldee  are  inserted  in  the  records  of 
Daniel  and  of  Ezra.  These  show  that  the  main 
changes  in  words,  originally  Chaldee  and  always 
retained,  were  these  two.  First,  the  old  Chaldee 
words,  like  the  Hebrew,  consisting  generally  of 
three  consonants,  were  pronounced  as  monosyl- 
lables ;  the  first  consonant  having  a  half,  or 
clipped  vowel  sound,  as  in  the  Anglo-Saxon 
"  gnarl "  and  German  "  knabe."  Second,  the  old 
Chaldee  grammatical  structure,  less  elaborated 
than  the  Hebrew,  points  out  everywhere  the  dis- 
tinction between  an  old  Chaldee  word  always  m 


Hebrew  Semitic  Terms  for  Wines.     413 

the  language  and  one  inserted  by  the  writers  ol 
the  captivity.  The  distinction  is  illustrated  in 
the  word  "ear"  (i  Sam.  8:12,  and  Isa.  30:  24) 
derived  from  the  Latin  "  aro,"  to  plow,  intro- 
duced by  the  Romans  among  the  Britons ;  whose 
early  incorporation,  unlike  that  of  words  of  mod- 
ern introduction  such  as  "  data,"  is  indicated  by 
its  having  taken  on  the  English  grammatical 
structure,  "  eared  "  (Deut  21:4),  and  "  earing  " 
(Gen.  45  :  6  and  Exod.  34  :  21).  The  vital  point 
in  the  history  of  wines,  as  also  of  general  Hebrew 
interpretation  to  be  observed,  is  this :  that  as  in 
English  poetry  old  Saxon  or  Celtic  words  (such 
as  "  quick,  wight,  wot,  yclept,  eke,  anon,")  are 
relics  of  the  most  ancient  spoken  language,  so 
the  Chaldee  words  found  in  Hebrew  poetry,  as 
Exod.  15th,  Deut.  3 2d,  Ps.  103d,  Isa.  40th,  etc., 
conformed  as  they  are  to  the  Hebrew  grammat- 
ical structure,  are  relics  of  the  old  mother  tongue 
spoken  in  "  Ur  of  the  Chaldees ";  and  are  the 
farthest  remove  possible  from  being  testimonials 
of  the  late  origin  of  those  poetic  writings. 

HEBREW    SEMITIC   TERMS    FOR   WINES. 

Usually  generic  terms,  indicating  a  compre- 
hensive genus,  are  common  to  different  dialects 
in  the  same  family  of  languages ;  while  specific 
terms,  or  those  indicating  different  kinds  of  a 
common  article,  are  restricted  to  a  neighborhood 


414  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

or  to  people  having  close  intercourse  with  each 
other.  Thus,  as  we  have  seen,  the  Greek  oinos 
cognate  to  the  word  for  wine  in  all  languages  of 
modern  Europe,  is  generic  ;  while  the  term 
"  gleukos"  disappears  in  Latin  and  all  modern 
European  tongues,  being  supplanted  by  "  mus- 
tum  "  and  its  cognates  in  Western  Europe,  though 
for  twenty-two  centuries  it  has  held  its  place  in 
Grecian  speech. 

Among  the  Hebrew  words  for  wine,  two  are 
generic ;  while  there  are  five  prominent  specific 
terms.  The  two  generic  terms  are  "  chemer " 
the  Semitic  genus,  and  "  yayin,"  the  universal 
term  ;  the  former  being  cognate  with  the  entire 
Semitic  family,  Chaldee  and  ancient  Aramean, 
modem  Syriac  and  Arabic ;  while  the  latter  i:{ 
cognate  with  the  entire  European  family,  includ 
ing  the  Greek  "  oinos,"  the  Latin  "  vinum,"  and 
their  modern  successors.  The  principal  specific 
terms  are  "  tirosh,"  or  must  in  its  different  varie- 
ties ;  "  'asis,"  or  must  in  its  sweetest  preparation 
by  boiling ;  "  sobe,"  the  Roman  "  sapa,"  or  must 
boiled  to  half  syrup ;  "  mesek,"  mixed,  spiced,  or 
drugged  wine ;  and  "  shekar,"  strongly  alcoholic 
wine.  The  use  of  these  terms  is  in  wonderful 
and  instructive  contrast.  "  Chemer,"  the  Semitic 
root,  is  used  but  twice,  and  that  in  poetry,  as  in 
Deut.  32  :  14  and  Isa.  27:2;  its  verb,  "  chamar," 
is  used  five  times,  only  in  the  poetry  of  David, 


**Tirosh"  as  "Un/ej^mented  Wine."     415 

Job,  and  Jeremiah  ;  and  its  Chaldee  monosyl- 
labic root,  "  ch'mar,"  is  found  six  times  in  Ezra 
and  Daniel.  So,  too,  "'asis"  is  used  but  five 
times,  and  in  poetry,  by  Solomon,  Isaiah,  Amos, 
and  Joel ;  "  sobe  "  occurs  but  three  times  in  the 
poetry  of  Isaiah,  Hosea,  and  Nahum,  while  its 
verb  is  found  six  times,  only  once,  Deut.  21 :  20, 
in  prose  ;  "  mesek  "  occurs  but  once,  Ps.  75  :  8, 
and  its  verb  five  times,  only  in  poetry ;  while 
"  shekar "  occurs  twenty-three  times,  only  twice 
in  prose,  Lev.  10:  19  and  i  Sam.  i  :  15,  and  its 
verb  nineteen  times,  only  twice.  Gen.  9  :  25  and 
43  :  34,  in  prose.  On  the  other  hand,  the  princi- 
pal specific  term,  "  tirosh,"  is  found  thirty-eight 
times,  nineteen  times  in  history  from  the  days  of 
Isaac  to  Nehemiah  ;  while  "  yayin,"  the  compre- 
hensive genus,  is  found  one  hundred  ana  forty 
times,  twice  as  often  as  all  the  other  terms  when 
added  together,  and  in  both  the  prose  and  poetry 
of  every  age.  No  earnest  inquirer  for  truth  can 
think  lightly  of  this  fact.  If  anything  in  history 
may  be  known,  the  meaning  of  these  two  terms 
may  be  satisfactorily  ascertained  when  all  the 
facts  are  brought  together  before  the  mind. 

THE    HEBREW    "  TIROSH  "    A    SPECIES,   INCLUDING 
"  UNFERMENTED    WINE  "    AS    A    VARIETY. 

Prepared  by  the  scientific,  philological,  and 
historic  conclusions  now  established,  the  nature 


41 6  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

of  the  Hebrew  terms  for  wines  receives  new 
light.  The  principal  terms  calling  for  renewed 
consideration  are  these  two,  "tirosh"  and  "yayin." 
As  to  the  discussion  of  these  terms  in  the  pre- 
ceding volume,  Dr.  Alex.  Meyrowitz,  whose  He- 
brew scholarship  is  of  unquestioned  authority, 
has  stated :  "  Its  defining  of  the  Hebrew  words 
'yayin'  and  'tirosh'  is  as  clever  as  it  is  true. 
The  whole  shows  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the 
Hebrew  literature,  as  well  as  of  classical  lore." 
Though  unaided  by  Dr.  Meyrowitz's  learning  in 
the  preceding  discussion,  in  this  supplement 
credit  will  be  given  for  his  contributions.  Ol 
the  three  terms  here  to  be  reviewed,  "  tirosh ' 
claims  the  first  place. 

Its  derivation  from  the  Hiphil  of  "yarash," 
illustrated  by  Job  20  :  15  and  confirmed  by  the 
cognate  Arabic,  is  farther  demonstrated  by  the 
"  laxative "  properties  of  must,  now  traced  in 
modern  French  writers  as  well  as  in  the  Grecian 
and  Roman  authorities  formerly  cited.  Fuerst's 
four  definitions,  arranged  in  the  order  of  produc- 
tion from  the  grape,  show  that  "  tirosh  "  is  a  spe- 
cies, with  the  varieties  recognized  by  French  and 
German,  as  well  as  by  Roman  writers,  in  "  gleu- 
kos,  mustum,  must."  Its  translation  in  the  Greek 
and  Latin,  the  Syriac  and  Arabic,  the  German 
French,  and  English  versions  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment show  that  the  translators,  if  not  their  read 
ers,  have  recognized  its  nature. 


Four    Varieties  of  "  Tiros h."  417 

"  Tirosh  "  is,  first,  as  Fucrst  states :  "  Saft  der 
Traube,"  juice  of  the  grape,  as  in  Isa.  65  :  8 ; 
represented  by  the  Greek  translators  as  bursting 
the  skin  by  its  internal  pressure  and  dripping 
from  the  clusters.  In  this  its  first  stage, "  tirosh  " 
is  in  fact  the  Greek  "  protropos,"  the  Latin  "  pro- 
tropum,"  the  medieval  "  lacrymge  Christi,"  the 
modem  French  "  mere-goutte  "  ;  or  the  drops  of 
saccharine  juice,  separated  from  the  pulp,  having 
in  them  no  element  of  ferment.  "  Tirosh  "  is, 
second,  "  most,"  as  in  Gen.  27  :  28,  '^']\  the  Latin 
"  mustum,"  and  the  English  "  must,"  which  is  the , 
fresh  juice  of  the  grape  as  it  comes  from  the 
mere  crushing  of  the  clusters  before  they  are 
pressed,  and  which,  when  unstrained,  will  fer- 
ment, because  it  has  more  or  less  of  the  ferment- 
ing pulp  mingled  with  the  saccharine  juice.  This 
was  drunk  at  the  feast  of  the  tabernacles,  as  Ne- 
hemiah  intimates ;  by  the  Roman  vine-treaders,  as 
Virgil  pictures ;  by  the  French  peasants,  as  Dr. 
Duff,  the  Scotch  missionary,  states ;  and  as  French 
writers  generally  indicate  by  mere  allusions;  a 
custom  like  that  of  American  farmers  in  the  sea- 
son of  cider-making.  "  Tirosh  "  is,  third,  "  der 
siisse  most,"  or  mead ;  the  Latin  mustum  decoc- 
tum,  or  boiled  must ;  the  syrup,  as  De  Sivrey 
nctes,  of  which  modern  "  sherbets "  among  the 
Muhammedan  Arabs  are  made;  to  which  Virgil 
alludes  in  his  picture  of  the  autumn  evening  as 
18* 


41 8         The  Divine  Law  as  to    Wines 

spent  in  his  rural  home  when  a  boy ;  and  which 
is  substantially  the  syrup  of  which  all  modem 
effervescing  drinks  are  made  in  soda-waters. 
"  Tirosh  "  is,  fourth,  "  ungegohrener  wein,"  unfer- 
mented  wine,  found,  as  Fuerst  states,  Mic.  6:15, 
and  contrasted  with  "yayin,"  Hos.  4:11.  This 
certainly  is  in  keeping  with  one  of  the  definitions 
of  "  most "  given  by  Grieb  as  "  ungekelteter  wein," 
unpressed  wine ;  it  harmonizes  with  the  modes 
of  manufacturing  "  vins  mutes  "  in  the  South  of 
France ;  it  is  in  keeping  with  the  methods  of  the 
Romans  for  preserving  "  mustum  "  free  from  fer- 
ment all  the  year ;  it  throws  light  on  Aristotle's 
mention  of  "  sweet  wine  "  that  "  does  not  intox- 
icate " ;  and,  in  every  respect,  it  is  the  last  link 
in  a  chain  of  testimonies  that  the  Hebrews  in 
the  age  of  Joseph  had,  like  the  Egyptians,  wines 
guarded  from  alcoholic  ferment  in  vessels  satu- 
rated and  covered  with  olive  oil. 

The  relation  of  "  tirosh  "  to  the  Greek  "  gleu- 
kos "  is  in  several  respects  important.  The 
definitions  above  given  show  that  "gleukos" 
includes  the  three  latter  of  Fuerst's  definitions ; 
namely,  fresh  must,  boiled  must  or  grape-syrup, 
and  unpressed  or  unfermented  wine.  The  Greek 
translator's  rendering  of  "yayin"  by"  gleukos," 
in  the  expression  (Job  32 :  19), "  Behold,  my  belly 
is  as  wine  which  hath  no  vent,"  establishes  these 
three   principles:    first,  the  fact   that   the   term 


"  Tirosh  "  as  related  to  *'Gleukos"      419 

"gleukos"  was  introduced  into  the  Greek  lan- 
guage at  the  time  of  their  intimate  association 
with  Asiatics ;  second,  that  the  effect  of  "  gleu- 
kos," as  of  "  tirosh  "  and  of  "  mustum,"  is  to  cause 
flatulency  and  purging;  and  third,  that  "yayin" 
was  recognized  by  the  translators,  acquainted 
with  both  the  Hebrew  and  the  Greek  of  their 
day,  as  the  term  for  the  comprehensive  genus 
under  which  "gleukos,"  with  its  varieties,  is 
included.  This  latter  fact  comes  in  again  to 
show  that  "  yayin  "  among  the  Hebrews  of  that 
day  was  regarded  a  universal  genus.  The  rela- 
tion, again,  of  "  tirosh  "  to  "  mustum  "  in  the 
earlier  and  later  Latin  usage  is  equally  important. 
In  the  Latin  Vulgate,  which  in  terms  for  natural 
objects  is  substantially  that  of  Jerome,  the  word 
"mustum"  is  used  at  Mic.  6:  15  in  the  precise 
passage  cited  by  Fuerst  to  show  that  "  tirosh  "  is 
unfermented  wine.  As  Fuerst,  in  analyzing  the 
meanings  of  "  tirosh,"  had  before  him  the  work 
of  his  predecessors,  German  and  English,  all  of 
whom  render  "  tirosh  "  by  "  mustum,"  the  fact  is 
manifest  that  Latin  translators  and  commenta- 
tors, from  Jerome  to  the  Reformation,  observed 
Jerome's  discriminating  idea.  In  ecclesiastical 
Latin,  as  well  as  in  classic  and  Provengal,  "  mus- 
tum "  has  among  its  varieties  unfermented  wine. 
This  recognition  by  Jerome  that  "mustum"  was 
a  species  with  varieties  is  seen  in  his  rendering  of 


4-20         The  Divine  Law  as  to    Wines. 

the  Hebrew  "  'asis  "  by  "  mustum  "  in  the  Song 
of  Solomon,  viii.  2,  for  the  English  word  "juice," 
and  in  Isa.  69 :  26  for  the  English  "  sweet  wine  "; 
while,  moreover,  his  recognition  of  "  yayin "  as 
the  comprehensive  genus  is  proved  by  his  ren- 
dering of  it  by  "  mustum  "  in  Job  32  :  19. 

In  like  manner  the  Syriac  rendering  of  "  tirosh ' 
by  three  specific  terms,  and  of  "gleukos"  in  the 
New  Testament  by  "  meritho,"  used  for  "  'asis  " 
in  Isa.  49 :  26,  shows  that  the  Syriac  interpreters 
recognized  the  relations  of  "  tirosh  "  and  "  gleu- 
kos "  to  be  those  indicated  by  the  Greek  trans- 
lator. So,  too,  the  rendering  by  the  Arabic 
translator  of  "  tirosh  "  by  "  'etsir,"  and  of  "gleu- 
kos "  by  "  selafeh,"  leads  to  this  manifest  conclu- 
sion ;  that  Bible  students  in  the  early  Christian 
ages  universally  recognized  both  these  terms  in 
the  Old  and  New  Testaments  as  indicating  a 
species  with  varieties,  whose  character  as  un- 
intoxicating  the  translator  clearly  seeks  to  point 
out. 

When,  now,  the  translators  of  the  age  of  the 
Reformation  performed  their  work,  everything 
bound  them  to  a  thorough  and  conscientious 
scholarship ;  for  Wyckliffe,  Luther,  and  Tyndale 
were  animated  by  a  spirit  and  held  to  an  account- 
ability such  as  could  not  have  been  excelled,  if  it 
were  equalled,  in  the  case  of  the  Greek  and  Latin 
translators  who  preceded  them.     It  is  enough  to 


"Tzrosh"  in  Luther s  Version.         421 

know  how  Luther  dreaded  the  "  drink-curse  "  to 
feel  the  assurance  that  he  exercised  care  in  his 
translation  of  Hebrew  words  referring  to  wine. 
In  thirty-five  out  of  the  thirty-eight  cases  where 
"  tirosh  "  occurs,  Luther  uses  the  word  "  most," 
showing  that  he  regarded  it  a  species.  Again, 
Luther  uses  "  most "  for  "  'asis  "  in  Joel  i  :  5,  where 
the  Vulgate  has  "  dulcedo  ";  by  "  siisse  wein  "  in 
Joel  3:18,  and  Amos  9 :  13,  where  the  Vulgate 
has  also  "  dulcedo  ";  by  "  most "  in  Cant.  8 :  2, 
where  the  Vulgate  has  "  mustum ";  while  in 
Isa.  49  :  26  he  has  "  siisse  wein,"  where  the  Vul- 
gate has  "  mustum."  This  rendering  of  Luther 
indicates  these  facts :  first,  that  he  made  his  study 
of  Bible  wines  as  independent  and  as  thorough 
as  his  study  of  Bible  doctrine ;  second,  that  he 
recognized  that  among  the  specific  kinds  of  wine 
some  were  as  unintoxicating  as  "  must ";  third, 
that  his  study  and  his  intelligent  interpretations 
had  some  relation  to  his  dread  of  the  drink-curse 
of  Germany.  Yet  again,  in  Gen.  27:  28,  ^^T, 
and  in  Joel  i  :  10,  where  the  context  shows  that 
the  juice  of  the  grape  yet  in  the  cluster  is  referred 
to,  Luther  renders  "tirosh"  by  "wein";  thus 
showing  that  to  him  all  products  of  the  grape 
were  wjne.  Yet  once  more,  in  Job.  32  :  19, 
Luther  renders  "  yayin  "  by  "  most,"  as  the  Greek 
tianslator  had  rendered  it  "gleukos,"  and  the 
Latin  translator  "  mustum  ";  thus  showing  that 


42  2         The  Divine  Law  as  to    Wines. 

he,  as  they,  regarded  "  yayin  "  the  genus  covering 
all  products  of  the  grape. 

THE  HEBREW  "  YAYIN  "  COGNATE  WITH   THE  UNI- 
VERSAL   TERM  "  WINE." 

As  observed,  the  term  "  yayin  "  is  used  twice 
as  many  times  as  all  other  words  of  the  Old 
Testament  united  which  refer  to  wines ;  and  this 
alone  indicates  that  it  is  generic,  covering  all 
species.  Yet  more,  all  translations  so  regard  it, 
rendering  it  by  the  generic  term  found  in  each 
language.  Yet  more,  it  is  not  Semitic ;  for  no 
language  ever  has  two  perfectly  synonymous 
terms,  except  when  one  is  introduced  from 
another  family  of  languages,  in  which  case  the 
two  words  soon  cease  to  be  used  as  perfect 
synonyms ;  a  principle  illustrated  in  the  Latin 
terms  caloric,  odor,  flavor,  etc.,  as  compared  with 
the  Anglo-Saxon  heat,  smell,  taste,  etc.  Yet 
more,  all  lexicographers  state  that  "  yayin "  is 
cognate  with  the  Greek  "  oinos,"  the  Latin 
"  vinum,"  and  modern  European  words  for  wine ; 
as  the  student  of  even  Webster's  English  Dic- 
tionary finds  illustrated. 

Turning  to  Hebrew  lexicographers,  Gesenius 
defines :  "  yayin,  so  called  from  its  fermenting, 
effervescing,  see  r.  yon."  Turning  to  this  word, 
according  to  direction,  we  read :  "  yon,  obsol. 
1  oot,  which  prob.  signified  to  boil  up,  to  be  in  a 


"Yayin"  a  Term  in  all  Languages.     423 

ferment'';  and  as  no  passage  is  cited,  and  such  a 
root  is  so  obsolete  that  no  trace  of  it  is  found,  and 
as  it  is  probable  only  that  it  exists,  the  reader  is 
prepared  for  the  opposite  conclusion  of  Fuerst, 
that  "  yayin  "  is  not  Semitic,  but  a  universal  root, 
back  of  which  no  earlier  root  can,  perhaps,  ever  be 
traced.  Gesenius  then  cites  as  illustrative,  "Arab, 
wain,  collect.,  clusters  turning  black,"  which  has 
in  it  no  suggestion  of  "  effervescing."  Yet  more, 
he  cites  as  cognate  the  Ethiopic  word  "  wain  " 
for  wine ;  then  the  Greek  "  oinos,"  Latin  "  vinum  " 
and  Armenian  "  gini."  Turning  then  to  Fuerst, 
we  find  doubt  thus  expressed  :  "  Yayin,  from  yin, 
if  the  noun  be  of  Semitic  origin."  Citing  then 
Isa.  55  :  I,  where  it  is  coupled  with  fresh  milk 
(chalab  meaning  fresh,  as  in  modem  Arabic),  he 
adds :  "  The  application  of  this  term  to  wine  in 
the  Hebrew  language  is  very  frequent  in  prose ; 
in  poetry  the  Aramaizing  chemer  is  the  standing 
usage."  Again  he  adds :  *'  As  to  the  derivation, 
a  Semitic  verb-stem  has  been  assumed"  etc.  Yet 
farther :  "  The  Greek  oinos,  Lat.  z//«-um.  Germ. 
wein,  Engl,  wine,  Armen.  gini,  etc.,  are  obviously 
without  any  clear  etymology  in  the  Indo-Ger- 
manic ;  but  they  are  identical  with  yayin,  and 
seem  to  have  come  from  the  East.  Arab,  wain, 
a  bunch  of  grapes,  Ethiopic  wain,  wine."  Not 
a  shadow  of  doubt,  then,  rests  on  the  fact,  that  in 
the  wisdom  of  Him  who  wished  His  will  to  be 


424         The  Divine  Law  as  to    Wines. 

known  as  to  the  intoxicant,  which,  from  Noah's 
fall  to  our  day,  has  been,  as  Luther  styled  it,  the 
"  sauf-teufel,"  or  drink-devil,  (the  tempter  of 
Noah  being,  to  the  reformer's  mind,  the  tempter 
most  successful  since  the  flood) — not  a  shadow  of 
doubt  rests  as  to  the  fact  that  the  word  known 
to  all  nations  was  selected  by  divine  inspiration 
as  the  one  in  reference  to  which  the  least  possible 
mistake  could  be  made  in  the  records  which 
teach  God's  law  as  to  beverages  whose  nature 
must  be  learned  by  the  effects  they  are  stated  to 
produce.  "  Yayin  "  is  like  "  oinos,"  and  "  vinum  " 
and  "  vin,"  and  "  wein  "  and  "  wine,"  as  universally 
generic  as  it  is  universally  cognate ;  and  the 
Divine  mind,  that  has  made  its  meaning  in  all 
human  literature  to  be  manifest  to  the  reader, 
meant  that  it  should  be,  as  it  has  certainly  been, 
manifest  also  to  men  responsible  as  translators. 

WORDS    FOR  WINE    IN    RABBINIC    HEBREW  AND  IN 
ARABIC. 

The  relation  in  which  these  two  most  familiar 
modern  languages  of  the  Semitic  family  stand  to 
the  Hebrew  of  the  Old  Testament  makes  the 
usage  of  Rabbinic  and  Arabic  writers  specially 
illustrative  of  the  Old  Testament  teaching  as  to 
wines.  Of  the  Rabbinic  usage  Dr.  Meyrowitz 
says:  "Yayin  is  frequently  used  in  Rabbinic 
literature."     Among  other  citations,  he  states  ■ 


"Yayin"  in  Rabbinic  Literature.      425 

'  Much  is  also  said  of  yayin  nesek,  wine  of  liba- 
tion, that  is,  wine  a  part  of  which  has  been  em- 
ployed in  libations  to  idols;  such  wine  being 
prohibited  to  an  Israelite  either  as  a  beverage  or  in 
any  kind  of  use."  He  adds :  "  The  Jewish  Rituals 
mention  yayin  too  frequently  for  citation."  After 
giving  various  citations  of  the  use  of  the  word 
" chamra,"  Dr.  Meyrowitz  says:  "  From  the  varied 
relations  in  which  yayin  and  chamra  are  used  in 
the  Rabbinic  writings,  I  would  conclude  that 
chamra  is  employed  to  indicate  strong  fermented 
wine,  whilst  yayin  is  employed  for  wine  as  a 
generic  term."  As  to  the  history  of  the  Hebrew 
language  and  the  appearance  of  Chaldee  terms, 
though  with  Hebrew  grammatical  structure,  in 
the  earlier  Hebrew  writings,  the  oldest  of  which 
he  regards  the  book  of  Job,  Dr.  Meyrowitz  says: 
"  The  Phenician  language  is  certainly  the  prin- 
cipal source  of  the  Hebrew  language ;  for  the 
family  of  Terah,  the  father  of  Abraham,  spoke 
after  his  day  Aramean,  and  in  Phenician  many 
Aramean  words  are  found.  Fr.  Bottscher,  in  his 
AusfuehrLehrbuch  der  Hebr.  Sprache  I.  42,  says : 
'  The  Aramean  words  in  the  early  books  of  the 
Old  Testament  are  partly  Aramean  only,  but 
partly  also  original  Semitic  words  common  to 
both  languages.'  So,  too,  we  find,  in  Phenician, 
words  which  occur  only  in  later  Talmudic  writ- 
ings ;  e.g.  mazal,  Gr.  tyche,  Eng.  fortune ;  and  pas. 


4^6         The.  Divine  Law  as  to    Wines. 

a  board,  etc.  Of  these  Dr.  P.  Shroeder,  in  his 
Phenician  grammar,  says :  '  If  some  words  found 
in  a  Phenician  inscription  coincide  with  some 
words  in  modern  Hebrew,  the  inscription  is  not 
necessarily  of  a  late  date.  The  words  may  be 
real  old  Canaanitic  words,  either  never  used  in 
the  Bible  or  unused  until  the  later  time.' "  All 
history,  then,  accords  with  the  fact  that  the  word 
"  yayin,"  as  pronounced  by  the  Hebrews,  is  a 
word  common  to  all  languages  of  Asia,  Africa, 
and  Europe.  It  may  be  yet  found  in  some 
Indian  record  in  the  Sanscrit  language ;  and  it 
may  be  traced  in  some  yet  undiscovered  Phe 
nician  inscription.  It  seems  to  be  found  in  the 
old  Egyptian  word  "  utna,"  in  Bunsen's  vocab- 
ulary, meaning  libation;  while  the  local,  and 
perhaps  special  term, "  arp,"  is  that  used  for  wine 
as  a  beverage.  However  this  may  be,  "  yayin  " 
is  the  universal  generic  word  through  which  the 
Beneficent  Being  who  directed  the  record  of  its 
history  from  the  error  of  Noah  to  the  virtue  of 
Timothy,  has  seen  fit  to  teach  the  "  Divine  Law 
as  to  Wines." 

While  the  Rabbinic  literature  thus  links  the 
history  of  wines  and  their  law  in  the  past  to  the 
duty  of  the  present  through  the  truth  embodied 
in  the  terms  "yayin"  and  "tirosh,"  the  Arabic 
terms,  "chemer"  and  "sherbet,"  reveal  a  vital 
truth  as  to  the  law  of  wines  recognized  by  the 


Unfermented  Wine  in  the  Koran.      427 

followers  of  the  prophet  who  professed  to  bring 
a  revelation  harmonizing  the  Old  and  New  Tes- 
tament, and  designed  to  bring  back  the  world  of 
mankind  to  the  faith  of  Abraham,  who  was 
"neither  a  Jew  nor  a  Christian,"  but  was  truly 
"  the  father  of  all  the  faithful."  The  statements 
of  the  Koran,  the  opinions  of  its  interpreters,  and 
the  deductions  of  lexicographers,  rnust  determine 
the  question  whether  "  unintoxicating  wines  "  are 
now  found,  or  ever  have  been  known,  in  Pales- 
tine and  other  "  Bible  Lands."  The  condemna- 
tion of  wines  in  the  early  writings  of  Muhammed 
(Koran,  Sur.  ii.  and  v.),  and  the  picture  of  the 
wines  of  Paradise  (Sur.  xlvii.,  Iv.,  and  Ivi.),  ol 
which  the  faithful  are  to  drink  to  fullness,  while 
yet  "  Their  heads  shall  not  ache  by  drinking  the 
same,  neither  shall  their  reason  by  it  be  dis- 
turbed " — these  two  statements  must  have  been 
based  on  facts  which  led  the  Persians  to  believe 
that  it  was  only  intoxicating,  and  not  unintoxi- 
cating wines,  whose  use  the  prophet  forbade ; 
and  those  facts  imply  a  knowledge  of  such  un- 
intoxicating wines.  The  harmonizing  state- 
ment, as  the  Muhammedan  commentators  cited 
by  Sale  indicate,  is  found  in  Sura  xvi.  After 
urging  that  God  makes  all  things  good  for  man, 
while  Satan  tempts  men  and  nations  to  pervert 
His  gifts,  Muhammed  thus  argues  :  "  God  send- 
eth  down  water  from  Heaven,  and  causeth  the 


428         The  Divine  Law  as  to    Wines. 

earth  to  revive  after  it  hath  been  dead.  Verily 
herein  is  a  sign  of  the  resurrection  unto  people 
that  hearken.  Ye  have  also  in  cattle  an  ex- 
ample of  instruction.  We  give  you  to  drink  of 
that  which  is  in  their  bellies,  a  liquor  between 
digested  chyle  and  blood,  pure  milk ;  which  is 
a  salutary  beverage  to  them  who  drink  it.  Now 
of  the  fruits  of  palm  trees  and  of  grapes  ye 
obtain  both  an  inebriating  liquor  and  also  good 
nourishment.  Verily  herein  is  a  sign  unto 
people  who  understand:  thy  Lord  spake  by 
inspiration  unto  the  bee,  saying,  Provide  thee 
houses  in  the  mountains  and  in  the  trees,  and  in 
the  hives  men  build  for  thee ;  then  feed  on 
every  kind  of  fruit,  wandering  in  the  Lord's 
paths  appointed  for  thee.  Then  there  pro- 
ceedeth  from  their  bellies  a  liquor  of  varied 
color,  wherein  is  medicine  for  men.  Verily 
herein  is  a  sign  to  them  who  consider."  Every 
thoughtful  reader  will  see  in  this  use  of  "  verily  " 
and  of  parables,  hints  borrowed  from  Muham- 
med's  study  of  the  New  Testament ;  in  the 
allusions  to  wines  that  intoxicate  as  contrasted 
with  products  of  the  grape  that  give  "  good 
nourishment,"  are  manifest  the  instruction  bor- 
rowed by  Muhammed  from  Jerome ;  in  the  ex- 
ample of  the  bee  is  the  suggestion  of  the  natural 
law  of  separating  the  juice  from  the  fermenting 
pulp,  which  was  observed  by  the  Romans  eight 


Arabic  Terms  for  Wines,  429 

centuries,  and  by  the  Egyptians  twenty-four 
centuries  earlier ;  while  its  harmony  with  Mu- 
hammed's  statement  as  to  wines  of  Paradise 
adds  confirmation  to  the  fact,  that,  to  the  writer 
of  the  Koran  unfermented  and  unintoxicating 
wines  were  known,  and  by  him  were  com- 
mended. 

The  definitions  given  by  German  and  French 
masters  of  classic  and  popular  Arabic  terms 
for  wines  are  of  course  directed  by  the  same 
knowledge  which  guides  lexicographers  in  other 
languages.  The  statements  of  Arabic  lexicog- 
raphers will  rule  students  of  Arabic,  as  Johnson 
and  Webster  rule  English  students.  Their 
statements  are  reliable  because  comprehending 
the  entire  usage  of  all  who  have  spoken  and 
written  the  Arabic  tongue ;  and  are  instructive 
^ven  to  the  people  for  whom  they  are  made, 
because  the  people  themselves  do  not  know  the 
common  and  comprehensive  usage  of  their  own 
language.  Freytag,  in  his  "  Lexicon  Arabico- 
Latinum,"  Halle,  Saxony,  1837,  has  these  defi- 
nitions :  "  chemer,  vinum  (potissimum  ex  uvarum 
succo  paratum) ;  turn  ^uo^ue  omn'is  potus  inebri- 
ans,"  "  wine  (the  strongest  prepared  from  the 
juice  of  grapes) ;  ^/len  also,  all  inebriating  drink." 
The  qualifying  phrase  as  to  "  chemer,"  derived 
"  from  the  juice  of  grapes,"  that  it  is  the 
*  strongest  \im^"  implies,  of  course,  that  there 


430         The  Divine  Lazv  as  to    Wines. 

are  weaker  wines.  Turning  to  the  only  word 
that  explains  this  qualification,  we  find  this  defi- 
nition:  "  skerab  plu.  sherbet,  ^otns  pec.  vinum," 
"drink  especially  wine."  Among-  derivatives 
mentioned,  one  has  "aqua,"  water,  as  one  ot 
its  meanings,  and  "  aqua  non  dulcis,"  water  not 
sweet,  or,  as  the  commentators  indicate,  water, 
not  simple  water ;  and  yet  another,  "  Portio 
potus  qua  expletur  sitis,"  the  amount  of  drink 
by  which  thirst  is  sated.  Here  the  whole  pro- 
cess of  preparing  and  partaking  (both  as  tc 
quality  and  quantity)  of  the  sweet  drinks  com- 
mon among  Muhammedans,  made  especially 
from  grape  syrups,  is  indicated  by  the  classic 
lexicographer.  Again,  in  the  "  Dictionaire  de 
poche  Frangais-Arabe  et  Arabe-Frangais,"  pre- 
pared by  "  L.  &  H.  Helot  d' Alger,"  published 
at  both  Paris  and  Algiers,  and  designed,  as  they* 
state,  "  for  military  men,  travellers,  and  mer- 
chants in  Africa,"  these  definitions  are  found. 
In  the  French-Arabic  portion  is  this  definition : 
"  vin,  cherab,  khamr";  "wine,  sherab,  chamr." 
In  the  Arabic-French  portion  are  found  these 
counterparts.  Under  the  second  we  read  : 
"khamr;  fermenter ;  vin ;  p6trir ";  "to  fer- 
ment ;  wine  ;  to  knead  ";  indicating  that  the  fer- 
ment is  radical,  like  that  in  bread.  Under  the 
first  we  read:  "  chereb,  boire ;  cherab,  vin; 
cherbet,  boisson,  potage";    that  is,  'tskereb,X.c 


Unfertnented  Wines  Used  by  Jeivs.      43 1 

drink  ;  skerab,  wine ;  sherbet  (as  Surenne  de- 
fines tlie  two  words,  each  ot"  double  meaning) 
soup  or  porridge,  beverage  or  raisin-water.' 
Here  the  modern  French  lexicographers,  like 
De  Sivrey,  the  paraphrast  of  Pliny,  finds  the 
"  sherbets  "  of  the  Muhammedans  to  be  a  species 
under  the  genus,  common  in  all  languages ;  wz?ie 
including  unintoxicating  products  of  the  grape 
among  the  scholars  of  Arabia,  as  in  all  other 
nations. 

JEWISH     WINES     AT     WEDDINGS,     AND     AT    THE 
PASSOVER,    UNFERMENTED. 

The  exceptional  comment  on  the  Talmud 
made  by  Maimonides,  a  Spanish  Jew  of  the 
twelfth  century,  and  the  exceptional  case  of  the 
Spanish  Jew  at  Hebron,  Palestine,  visited  by 
Rev.  Eli  Smith  before  the  year  1840,  call  for 
re-statement  and  written  confirmation  of  the 
rule  among  the  Israelites.  Special  facilities  for 
intercourse  with  the  Jews  at  Jerusalem  in  1848, 
intimate  acquaintance  with  eminent  laymen  for 
years  at  Washington,  a  successful  effort  in  1870 
through  President  Grant,  Secretary  Fish,  and 
Senator  Sumner,  then  Chairman  ox  the  Senate 
Committee  on  Foreign  Affairs,  with  the  Turkish 
Minister,  to  secure  for  Israelites  in  Palestine  the 
immunities  granted  to  Christians  in  visiting  the 
holy  places,  and  frequent  interviews  with  learned 


432         The  Divine  Law  as  to    Wines. 

Israelites  of  different  countries  and  professions 
led  to  the  statement  as  to  their  Passover  wine 
made  in  the  volume  entitled  "  Divine  Law  as  to 
Wines."  Assured  that  a  written  statement  would 
be  more  convincing,  the  following  facts  have 
been  obtained  in  two  letters  from  Hon.  P.  J. 
Joachimsen ;  whose  intelligence  as  a  judge,  as  well 
as  the  eminent  culture  and  charities  of  his  es- 
teemed lady,  are  well  known  in  New  York.  The 
first  is  as  follows : 

336  East  69TH  Street,  February  15,  1881. 
Rev.  and  Dear  Sir: 

In  answer  to  your  favor  of  yesterday's  date,  I  repeat  that 
the  great  majority  of  conforming  Jews  in  this  city  use  wine 
made  from  raisins  at  the  Passover  Feast.  Of  course  the 
raisins  zxe.  fresh.  Such  raisin-wine  is  used  in  all  conforming 
synagogues  for  the  sanctification  of  Shabbat  and  holy  days  ; 
/.  e.,  for  Kiddush  and  also  for  services  at  circumcisions  and 
weddings.  Some,  but  not  many,  people  use  imported  wine 
—  Italian,  Hungarian,  or  German  —  which  is  certified  as 
"  Perach,"  or  "  Kosher  wine." 

1  am,  yours  most  truly, 

P.  J.  Joachimsen. 

In  a  note  of  February  16,  1881,  Judge 
Joachimsen  adds  the  following  as  to  the  nation- 
ality of  Israelites  in  New  York  City,  of  whom 
there  are  from  80,000  to  100,000  in  number. 
While  assured  that  the  "great  majority  of  Jews 
in  New  York  are  natives  of  this  city,"  the  larger 
part  being  of  German  descent,  he  mentions : 

"  There  are  some  few  Turks,  and  a  number  of  natives  ol 
Tangiers,  Morocco,  Tunis,  Gibraltar.  These  attach  themselves 


yesus  a  ^^  Conforming  Jew^  433 

to  the  Sephardim,  on  19th  Street,  the  so-called  Spanish  and 
Portuguese  Jews.  There  is  a  specifically  French  congrega- 
tion, and  one  specifically  of  Hollanders.  The  English,  a  few 
Irish  and  German  Jews,  including  some  from  the  Duchy  of 
Posen  (a  Russian  possession),  form  the  membership  in  Henry 
Street,  Christie  Street,  34th  Street,  and  44th  Street  Syna- 
gogues. The  Fifth  Avenue  Temple  and  the  Lexington 
Avenue  and  63d  Street  Temple  are  specifically  German  ;  while 
Lexington  Avenue  and  5Sth  Street  congregation  are  called 
Bohemian,  from  Bohemia,  whose  capital  is  Prague.  The  so- 
called  Polish  and  Russian  Jews,  from  Russia,  Lithuania,  and 
Poland,  have  usually  synagogue-rooms  in  the  buildings  of 
Benevolent  Societies." 

It  appears,  thus,  that  by  immemorial  custom, 
handed  down  in  all  nations  since  their  dispersion, 
Jews,  adhering  to  the  customs  of  their  fathers, 
use  unfermented  "  Raisin-wine,"  not  only  at  the 
"  Pesah,"  or  Passover,  but  also  at  circumcisions 
and  weddings,  and  even  at  the  weekly  "  qodesh," 
or  "  consecration,"  on  Friday  evening,  at  the 
opening  of  their  Sabbath.  Even  the  Israelites, 
the  testimonies  of  thousands  of  whom  in  differ- 
ent lands  are  personally  known,  regard  Jesus  as 
a  sincere  and  earnest  reforming  Rabbi,  who 
strictly  conformed  to  the  ritual  established  by 
the  Jewish  fathers.  The  conclusion  is  an  induc- 
tion which  no  impartial  mind  can  escape,  were 
there  no  other  testimony ;  that,  at  the  wedding 
and  at  the  Passover,  whose  wines  were  provided 
by  His  own  direct  care,  the  customs  of  conform- 
ing Jews  ruled  Jesus  in  His  provision. 
19 


434        1^^^  Divine  Law  as  to    Wines. 

MISSIONARY     REPORTS   AS    TO    WINES   IN    BIBLE 
LANDS. 

The  word  "formulated,"  used  to  characterize 
the  testimonies  sought  from  missionaries  in  Bible 
lands  during  the  last  forty  years  as  to  unfer- 
mented  wines,  is  the  expression  of  the  highest 
esteem  and  a  meed  of  justice  rendered  to  men 
absorbed  in  their  work  and  wishing  to  know  noth- 
ing else.  This,  the  word  "  formulated  "  itself,  the 
history  of  the  testimonies  obtained,  and  their 
bearing  on  the  scientific  and  archaeological  ques- 
tion at  issue,  most  emphatically  confirm.  The 
Latin  term  "  formula  "  was  used  by  Roman  law- 
yers, as  it  is  by  modern  scientists,  to  characterize 
testimony  obtained  to  substantiate  a  previously 
conceived  theory;  and  the  verb,  of  recent  for- 
mation, has  a  correspondent  meaning. 

In  his  great  work,  the  result  of  studies  begun 
in  Europe  in  1826,  of  a  tour  in  the  East  made 
in  1838,  and  of  three  years  of  subsequent  elab- 
oration, published  at  Boston  in  1841,  and  dedi- 
cated "  to  Rev.  Moses  Stuart "  as  "  the  fruit  of 
studies  begun  in  the  bosom  of  his  family,"  Dr. 
Edward  Robinson  either  avoided,  or  had  no  oc- 
casion for  controversy  with  his  old  and  revered 
teacher.  It  is  somewhat  remarkable  that  while 
the  culture  of  the  grape  was  treated  of  at  such 
length  by  Roman  writers,  and  while,  following 


Missionary  Testimony  ''Formulated."  435 

the  Roman  Tacitus,  its  varied  products  have  been 
so  closely  analyzed  in  the  land  of  Palestine  by 
so  many  French  and  German  explorers,  only  a 
single  brief  allusion  is  found  in  the  volumes  of 
Dr.  Robinson  (Vol.  II.,  Sec.  xi.,  p.  433,  May  24, 
1838);  and  that  in  a  mere  paragraph  penned 
amid  the  miles  of  vineyards  north  of  Hebron, 
and  close  by  the  numerous  manufactories  where 
"dibs,"  or  grape  syrup,  is  made.  During  the 
year  preceding  the  issue  of  Dr.  Robinson's  vol- 
umes, while  Rev.  Eli  Smith,  his  traveling  com- 
panion, was  at  home  aiding  in  the  final  revision, 
the  writer  of  the  article  in  the  Princeton  Review 
of  April,  1 84 1,  above  noticed,  states  that  he 
'*  addressed  a  letter  to  Rev.  Mr.  Smith,"  asking  a 
reply  to  these  two  questions :  "  Whether  the 
wines  in  common  use  in  Palestine  were  fermented 
and  produced  intoxication,  and  whether  the 
wines  of  Lebanon  were  boiled."  The  tenor  of 
Rev.  Mr.  Smith's  statement,  dated  Kinderhook, 
November  10,  1840,  while  giving  a  negative 
answer  to  the  second  and  an  affirmative  reply  to 
the  first  question,  indicates  the  varied  motives 
which  prompted  it.  Its  essential  points  are 
these :  "  All  wines  around  the  Mediterranean  are 
fermented,  and  do  produce  intoxication."  He 
adds :  "  I  used  to  take  a  little  wine  with  my  din- 
ner " ;  but  having  found  a  special  friend  who  had 
fallen  into  habits  of  intoxication  from  using  the 


43 6         The  Divine  Law  as  to    Wines. 

common  wine,  he  adds :  "  I  then  gave  up  my 
wine;  and,  so  far  as  I  know,  all  my  brethren 
abstain  from  its  habitual  use  as  a  temperance 
measure.  In  preparing  a  tract  on  Temperance 
for  circulation  in  Syria,  we  have  included  wine 
with  brandy  as  one  of  the  causes  of  intemperance 
which  should  be  avoided."  He  farther  says : 
"  I  recollect,  indeed,  in  traveling  through  Asia 
Minor,  I  frequently  quenched  my  thirst  with  an 
infusion  of  raisins.  But  it  was  never  called 
sherdb,  the  name  given  in  Turkish  to  wine ;  but 
"  ti  zum  suyCi,"  raisin-water.  Even  in  the  house 
of  the  chief  rabbi  of  the  Spanish  Jews  at  Hebron 
I  was  once  treated  with  fermented  wine  during 
the  feast  of  unleavened  bread."  Farther  on  he 
says :  "  The  principal  word,  indeed,  in  Arabic  for 
wine, '  khamrl  is  derived  from  the  word  kkamar, 
to  ferment."  Referring,  then,  in  replying  to  the 
second  question,  to  an  article  of  Mr.  Delavan  in 
the  New  York  Observer  of  August  24th,  he 
says :  "  All  discrepancy "  between  us  "  as  to 
boiled  wines  is  chiefly,  if  not  entirely,  verbal.  He 
testifies  that  the  unfermented  juice  of  the  grape 
can  be  preserved  from  fermentation  by  boiling. 
My  testimony  goes  farther ;  and  proves  not  only 
that  it  can  be,  but  is  in  fact  thus  preserved  to  a 
great  extent.  The  difference  is,  that  he  calls  this 
syrup  wine,  I  have  not  found  it  bearing  the 
name,  nor  used  in  the  place  of  wine."     His  ear- 


Rev.  E,  SmitJis  First  Testimo7iy.     437 

nest  desire  not  to  be  drawn  into  a  position  incon- 
sistent with  his  real  views  and  practice,  is  thu? 
pressed :  "  You  will  perceive  that  I  am  no  apol- 
ogist for  wine-drinking  on  the  ground  that  the 
present  wines  of  Palestine  are  fermented.  These 
wines  tend  to  intoxication,  and  therefore  we  ban- 
ish them  from  our  tables,  though  they  are  wines 
of  Palestine.  Nor  do  I  wish  what  I  have  written 
to  be  regarded  as  in  any  way  aimed  against  the 
principle  of  the  American  Temperance  Union. 
Indeed,  I  am  happy  to  find  that  any  apparent 
discrepancy  between  the  testimony  here  given, 
and  that  of  Mr.  Delavan  in  his  letter  to  the  edi- 
tors of  the  New  Yo7'k  Observer,  so  far  as  facts 
are  concerned,  is  only  apparent."  With  true  ap- 
preciation of  the  fact  that  the  personal  observa- 
tion of  an  individual  is  not  to  be  compared  with 
the  range  of  facts  brought  by  scholarship  from 
all  ages  and  lands,  with  men  like  Prof.  Stuart 
and  Dr.  Robinson  before  him  as  examples 
Rev.  Mr.  Smith  adds  ingenuously,  that  as  to  the 
question  whether  there  were  not  anciently  unin- 
toxicating  wines  in  Palestine,  "  a  person  who  has 
never  been  in  Palestine  is,  perhaps,  as  capable  of 
judging  as  myself." 

The  careful  review  of  this  statement  of  Rev. 
Mr.  Smith,  after  fcKty  years'  illustration  of  its 
truth,  are  manifest :  First,  ministers  and  mission- 
aries are  to  be  commended,  when  in  American 


438         The  Divine  Law  as  to    Wines. 

cities  or  in  foreign  lands  they  are  so  absorbed  in 
their  work  as  to  know  far  less  of  secular  matters, 
especially  as  to  the  character  of  wines,  than  the 
most  casual  observer  in  the  world  of  fashion. 
Second,  Rev.  Mr.  Smith's  range  of  observation, 
as  well  as  zest  for  this  study,  was  limited,  as  his 
article  of  1846,  compared  with  that  of  Rev. 
Mr.  Homes'  of  1848,  and  his  citing  an  excep- 
tional case  of  one  Spanish  Rabbi  as  opposed  to 
all  his  conscientious  compatriots,  is  proof.  Third, 
his  recognized  lack  of  means  of  judging  as  to 
the  law  of  wines  and  their  history,  is  confessed, 
as  well  as  actually  exhibited,  in  the  share  he  took 
in  Dr.  Robinson's  researches.  Fourth,  his  view 
of  "  boiled  wines  "  makes  no  discrimination  be- 
tween the  varied  Hebrew  and  Roman  products 
as  "  'asis,"  or  "  defrutum,"  as  "  sobe,"  or  "  sapa,"  all 
of  which  were  used  as  beverages.  Fifth,  his 
statement  as  to  the  Arabic  "  sherab "  (plural, 
"  sherbet,"  as  usually  pronounced),  is  really  in 
harmony  with  the  lexicographers ;  for  he  regards 
them  "  wines  ";  while,  as  De  Sivrey,  in  his  Roman 
comparison,  states,  and  as  every  traveler  in  Tur- 
key learns,  they  are  unintoxicating  wines.  Sixth, 
the  shrinking  of  Rev.  Mr.  Smith  from  being 
drawn  into  apparent  conflict  with  either  party  in 
a  home  controversy,  by  giving  formulated  testi- 
mony, has  been  appreciated  by  men  like  Moses 
Stuart,  Tayler  Lewis,  Geo.  Bush,  and  William 


Testimony  of  Dr.  Duff  and  ethers.      439 

Patton ;  whom  nothing  but  the  fear  of  neglect- 
ing duty  has  urged  to  the  utterance  of  known 
truth  not  accepted  by  all  their  brethren  whom 
they  esteem  and  love,  and  whom  they  only  seek 
to  win  to  truth  without  dictating  duty.  Seventh, 
every  statement  of  Rev.  Mr.  Smith,  as  to 
"  raisin-drink,  boiled  wines,  sherab,  and  khamer," 
finds  its  place  as  part  of  the  comprehensive  truth 
which  science  and  history  unite  in  confirming. 

The  same  manifest  fact  is  on  the  face  of  all 
statements  made  by  different  observers  as  to 
the  testimony  of  Rev.  Messrs.  Wright,  Perkins, 
Laurie,  and  others.  Each  one  states  facts  as  to 
his  own  observations;  and  each  and  all  of  these 
statements  are  in  harmony  as  admirable  as  that 
of  the  four  Evangelists  in  their  records  of  Christ's 
history.  So,  too,  as  to  the  statement,  not  quoted 
from  Dr.  Perkins,  but  cited  as  a  fact  universal 
in  wine-growing  countries,  that  must  is  "  drunk 
as  our  new  cider,"  Dr.  Moore's  quotation  on 
the  next  page  (pp.  98,  99)  is  the  explanation. 
Sojourning  in  the  south  of  France,  where,  as  we 
have  seen,  the  Roman  customs  pictured  by  Cato, 
Columella,  and  Virgil  still  prevail.  Dr.  Duff 
writes,  as  recorded  in  his  Memoir  (Vol.  I.,  p. 
392) :  "  Look  at  the  peasant  at  his  meals  in 
wine-bearing  districts ;  instead  of  milk,  he  has 
before  him  a  basin  of  the  pure,  unadulterated 
'blood  of  the  grape.'      In  this,  its  native  and 


440        The  Divine  Law  as  to    Wines. 

original  state,  it  is  a  plain,  simple,  and  wholesome 
liquid,  which  at  every  repast  becomes  to  the 
husbandman  what  milk  is  to  the  shepherd — not 
a  luxury,  but  a  necessary — not  an  intoxicating, 
but  a  nutritive  beverage."  The  reader  of  Taci- 
tus, in  his  description  of  the  fruits  of  Palestine 
in  the  age  of  the  Apostles  of  Jesus,  and  of 
Jerome's  picture  of  its  wines,  when,  just  after 
Constantine's  day,  the  Roman  Christians  were 
seeking  in  non-wine-growing  climes  the  whole 
truth  as  to  Christ's  example,  the  truly  thought- 
ful reader  instinctively  carries  back  all  these  har- 
monizing statements,  and  holds  them  in  mind  as 
he  reads  of  John  and  Timothy  abstaining  from 
wine,  while  Jesus  was  true  at  once  to  Jewish  law 
and  Roman  virtue  in  His  providing  and  em- 
ploying the  "  fruit  of  the  vine." 

A  single  incident  in  the  actual  experience  of 
a  student-traveler  will  illustrate  the  validity  of 
the  methods  of  true  research  above  stated  as 
ruling.  In  a  party  visiting  the  tombs  of  Beni- 
Hassan,  where  the  fullest  representations  of  vine- 
culture,  grape-gathering  and  treading,  and  of 
wine-preserving  are  presented,  four  distinct  classes 
of  observers  are  met.  There  are  the  Arab  na- 
tives, who  carry  torches,  water-bottles,  etc. ;  who, 
having  no  conception  of  vine  or  wine,  stare  with 
wonder  at  the  interest  of  foreigners  in  the  pict- 
ured walls;    and  who,  if  asked,  would   declare 


Four  Classes  of  Observers.  441 

that  nobody  in  their  country — that  is,  in  Egypt 
— ever  heard  of  such  things  as  grapes  or  wine 
cellars.     There  are,  second,  the  attendants  of  a 
Hungarian  prince,  like  ordinary  professional  men 
in  every  land,  so  devoted  to  their  special  work 
that  boys  of  twelve  years  know  more  about  the 
common  curiosities  of  their  city  residence  than 
they,  though  old  residents,  know ;  and  they,  like 
clergymen,  who  in  New  York  know  nothing  of 
beer-brewing  or  wine-making,  need  the  simplest 
of  explanations  to  comprehend  the  design  of  the 
Egyptian  sculptors  and  painters.    There  is  a  third 
class,  here  represented  by  the  cultured  prince, 
speaking  French  like  his  escort,  who  has  some 
little   knowledge  of    ChampoUion's  work,  and 
who  is  specially  interested,  because  of  national 
pride,  to  follow  Lepsius  and  Bunsen  over  their 
track  of  explorations  made  two  years  before,  in 
1846 ;  and  he  enters  with  zest  into  the  tracing  of 
the  methods  of  training  and  pruning  the  vines, 
of  gathering  the  grapes  in  baskets  and  bearing 
them  to  the  vat,  of  treading  the  grapes,  of  the 
streaming  of  the  must  from  the  upper  and  lower 
spouts,  and  of  its  dipping  and  pouring  into  the 
jars  for  storage  after  the  oil-bearer  has  covered 
it  with  a  thin  coating,  which  shuts  out  the  air. 
There  is,  fourth,  the  American  student  of  art 
and  literature,  who  has  traced  through  the  vol- 
umes of  Napoleon's  savants,  fixing  the  outline  0/ 
19* 


442  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

their  life-like  drawings,  mastering'  their  ex- 
haustive citations  from  Grecian  and  Roman 
writers  on  Egypt,  and  carrying  as  a  guide-book 
Sir  Gardner  Wilkinson's  condensed,  but  com- 
plete descriptions.  Such  an  incident  reveals 
the  different  impressions  which  Dr.  Robinson 
as  the  fourth  party.  Rev.  Mr.  Smith  as  the  third, 
ordinary  business  tourists  as  the  second,  and 
their  Arab  servants  as  the  first  party,  might  be 
expected  to  gain  and  to  put  into  form  in  their 
respective  statements.  Of  course  the  collation 
of  all  that  was  really  seen  and  known  by  each 
and  by  all  of  these  parties  would  give  the  truth  ; 
and  truth  really  reached  always  harmonizes  all 
facts  attested  by  impartial  observers. 

CHARACTER    OF    RECENT    WORKS    ON    WINES. 

The  work  of  Redding  on  Wines,  London, 
1836,  and  the  later,  more  voluminous,  and 
elegantly  elaborated  work  of  J.  L.  Thudichum, 
M.D.,  and  of  Auguste  Dupre,  Ph.D.,  from  the 
press  of  Macmillan  &  Co.,  London  and  New 
York,  1872,  are  designed  for  amateurs ;  attempt- 
ing nothing  of  scientific  statement ;  having  but 
few  allusions  to  history ;  minutely  describing 
only  the  existing  wines,  first  of  France,  the 
leading  and  permanently  scientific  wine-growing 
country,  and  then  of  every  other  country  in 
Europe,  Asia,  Africa,  and  America.     They  are 


Popular    Works  on    Wines.  443 

specially  valuable  for  the  end  and  class  which 
prompted  their  preparation.  Redding  cites,  for 
example,  the  tradition  found  by  Marco  Polo 
that  Persia  (really  the  home  of  Noah  near  that 
land)  was  the  first  wine-producing  country ; 
while  this  early  traveler  mentions  the  fact  that 
he  found  Persian  Muhammedans  who  drank 
boiled  wines  ;  a  fact  in  accord  with  abundant 
testimonies  that  the  Persian  Muhammedans 
have  always  regarded  Muhammed's  teaching  as 
forbidding  only  intoxicating  wines,  not  those 
from  which,  by  boiling  or  any  other  process, 
their  alcoholic  property  has  been  expelled. 
Redding  cites  again  Sir  John  Chardin  as  men- 
tioning a  fact  as  to  the  Turkish  Muhammedans, 
which  confirms  Burkhardt  and  all  authorities  as 
to  Turkish  views  of  wine-drinking ;  the  Turks, 
unlike  the  original  Arabian  Muhammedans,  ad- 
hering to  the  Koran  and  its  prophet  only  from 
policy.  Chardin  states  that  the  Caliph  Soly- 
man,  having  been  betrayed  into  drinking  intoxi- 
cating wine,  his  son  Hussein  forbade  its  manu- 
facture, sale,  or  use  in  the  entire  Turkish  empire. 
The  passage  from  Redding  quoted  by  Dr. 
Moore  does  illustrate  modern  modes  of  making 
"  raisin-wine ";  but  the  student  of  Pliny  will 
trace  important  modifications  in  ancient  and 
modern  methods  whose  details  belong  only  to 
voluminous  scientific  treatises  for  wine-makers 


444  ^-^^  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

The  work  of  Thudichum  and  Dupre  has  occa- 
sional references  to  old  Grecian  and  Roman 
methods  of  preparing  fermented  wines  still  in  a 
degenerate  form  of  use ;  which  mere  allusions 
suggest  that  if  a  thorough  study  of  those  Gre- 
cian and  Roman  writers,  briefly  but  honestly 
cited  in  the  "  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines,"  were 
made  for  modern  vintners,  he.tX.^T  fermented,  as 
well  as  true  unfermented  wines,  would  be 
secured  for  the  two  classes  of  earnest  inquirers, 
not  necessarily  antagonistic,  who  are  now  seek- 
ing for  them. 

The  more  important  conclusion,  from  a 
thorough  survey,  to  any  impartial  student  will 
bring  out  fresh  commendation  to  the  works 
issued  by  the  English  and  American  Temper- 
ance publishing  houses  ;  commendation  such  as 
the  issues  of  no  society,  scientific,  archaeological, 
or  philological,  can  rival.  It  is  easy  to  copy  the 
style  of  superficial  and  destructive  criticism ; 
whose  indirect  condemnation  was  so  universally 
echoed  by  the  American  press  in  commending, 
when  his  labors  ceased,  the  peer  of  profound 
and  generous  critics,  George  Ripley.  Any 
special  pleader,  however  young  or  shallow,  can, 
from  the  folios  of  testimony  given  in  a  compli- 
cated law-suit,  pick  out  discrepancies  in  testi- 
mony ;  and  find,  too,  laches  in  their  presentation 
fallen    into    by  the   ablest  advocate.     But   the 


Publications  of  the  Nat.  Temp.  Society.  445 

judge  who  is  to  decide  in  the  suit — in  this  case 
the  bench  of  impartial  EngHsh  and  American 
Christian  scholars — far  from  censuring,  will  even 
cominend  that  absorption  in  a  great  truth  which 
makes  its  advocate  forgetful  of  all  but  the  truth 
for  whose  defence  he  is  responsible ;  a  self- 
forgetfulness,  recognized  by  Longinus  as  char- 
acterizing the  eloquence  of  the  great  Christian 
apostle  Paul,  which  made  him  heedless  of  critics 
on  oratory,  rhetoric,  and  even  on  grammar,  while 
his  grand  mind  was  aglow  with  the  conceptions 
of  vital  truth.  Doubtless  the  rhetoric  of  one, 
and  the  inaccuracy  of  another  of  the  advocates 
of  unfermented  wines  in  Bible  history,  may  be 
subject  to  just  criticism.  It  would  be  unworthy, 
in  a  simple  searcher  for  truth,  to  press  the 
rejoinder,  "  May  not  the  same  be  true  of 
the  opponents  of  unfermented  wines  ?  "  for,  the 
people  know  that  the  temporary  ardor  of  op- 
posing advocates  in  a  court-room  never  alters 
the  truth  each  maintains,  nor  varies  the  decision 
of  the  bench,  nor  finally  confuses  a  jury. 

Stuart's  two  propositions  sustained. 

That  seemed,  more  than  forty  years  ago,  a 
bold  declaration  of  Prof.  Stuart  as  to  the  exist- 
ence and  the  attestation  to  the  nature  and  use 
of  unfermented  wines  in  the  Old  and  New  Tes- 
tament times :    *'  There   is    no  ancient  custom 


44^         The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

with  a  better  amount  and  character  of  proof 
than  this."  Had  Stuart  possessed  the  time  to 
have  gone  over  the  unbroken  chain  of  chemical, 
philological,  and  historic  proofs  as  to  the  exist- 
ence among  the  Egyptians,  where  the  Israelites 
were  educated  from  Joseph  to  Moses,  and 
among  the  Romans,  where  Jesus  and  His  apos- 
tles lived — had  he  possessed  the  time  to  trace 
the  whole  line  of  translations  and  comments, 
Hebrew,  early  Christian,  and  Reformed,  which 
embody  facts  rather  than  opinions  as  to  Bible 
wines,  Stuart  might  have  settled  this  as  he  did 
other  points  in  American  Biblical  criticism.  Ot 
course  every  impartial  student  will  be  his  own 
judge  ;  and  the  responsible  defenders  of  Christ's 
truth,  standing  before  earnestly  inquiring 
Churches,  as  well  as  educators  training  youth 
for  practical  success  and  honor  in  life,  can  be 
trusted  for  this  impartiality.  To  minds  like 
that  of  Stuart  the  evidence  will  seem  conclusive 
that  his  second  proposition,  his  minor  premise, 
a  question  of  fact,  is  sustained  by  French  chem- 
ists, scientists,  and  annotators  on  Roman  his- 
tory ;  and  that  Christ  did  make,  use,  and  com- 
mend unintoxicating  wine ;  while,  also,  it  existed 
in  the  "tirosh"  invoked  in  Isaac's  blessing,  ii 
not  in  the  wine  set  by  Joseph  before  his 
brethren. 

If  the    second   proposition  be  sustained  by 


Siuaris  Principles  Applied.  447 

chemical  and  philological  science,  combining 
their  testimonies  in  a  chain  not  broken  even  in 
the  middle  ages  when  Arabian  Muhammedans 
vied  with  Christians  as  scientists  and  philolo- 
gians,  then  the  first  proposition  is  (without  far- 
ther need  of  testimony)  sustained  ;  so  that  it  is 
only  the  application  of  the  two  sustained  prin- 
ciples to  special  statements  of  the  Old  and  New 
Testaments  which  is  farther  called  for. 

APPLICATION    OF   STUART's    PRINCIPLES. 

Coming,  then,  to  this  application,  two  general 
principles  are  to  be  observed :  First,  on  two 
words  of  the  Old  Testament  Hebrew,  and  on 
two  of  the  New  Testament  Greek,  namely, 
"  yayin  "  and  "  oinos,"  cognate  as  well  as  the 
ultimate  genus,  and  on  "  tirosh  "  and  "  gleukos," 
universally  acknowledged  to  be  the  most  com- 
mon terms  for  the  lowest  species, — on  the  usage 
of  these  four  terms  decision  hinges.  Second,  in 
determining  usage  as  to  their  meaning,  the 
Greek  translation  of  the  Old  Testament  made 
by  Hebrews  in  Egypt — the  land  of  College 
training — and  the  Latin  translation  of  the  New 
Testament  made  by  Jerome  in  Christ's  home, 
are  the  ruling  lights ;  next  to  which  come  the 
Syriac  and  Arabic  translations,  and  the  com- 
ments of  early  Christian  scholars  living  on  the 
eastern  shore  of  the  Mediterranean  ;    next  to 


448  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

them  medieval,  including-  Muhammedan  schol- 
ars ;  next  to  them  the  translations  and  com- 
ments of  the  Reformers  who  wrote  with  such 
responsibilities  resting  on  them,  and  with  such 
opposers  to  convict  them  of  error ;  and  last,  not 
first,  modern  German,  English,  and  American 
commentators,  called  only  to  learn  facts  as  to  an 
art  now  almost  forgotten,  and  to  learn  that  art, 
not  from  personal  conceptions  beforehand  enter- 
tained, but  from  historic  testimonies. 

Here  the  fact  is  met  that  for  "  tirosh,"  recog- 
nized by  all  as  "must,"  the  Greek  translators,  in 
thirty-seven  out  of  thirty-eight  cases,  employed 
"  oinos ";  showing  that  "  tirosh,"  the  lowest 
species,  is  included  in  the  genus  ;  while  Jerome, 
in  more  than  thirty  cases,  uses  "  vinum "  for 
*'  tirosh,"  showing  that  this  Latin  term  is  as 
truly  generic  as  "  oinos."  Coming  to  modern 
translations,  that  of  Luther  being  a  specimen, 
the  use  of  "most"  for  "tirosh"  in  thirty-five 
cases,  and  of  "wein"  in  three  cases,  and  those 
where  it  would  be  least  suspected,  shows  that 
this  great  leader,  who  dared  not  translate  an 
inspired  record  without  thought  bestowed  on 
every  word  he  used,  was  controlled  by  a  knowl- 
edge, as  well  as  a  conviction,  worthy  to  be  now 
a  guide.  This  same  conclusion  might  be  reached 
by  numberless  kindred  connections  of  demon- 
strative research. 


Principles  Guiding  the  Reformers.    449 

While  this  general  care  is  manifested  in  the 
translation  of  terms  for  wine,  special  cases  dis- 
play a  special  thought  on  the  part  of  translators. 
The  thorough  study  of  the  terms  rendered 
"  drunk  "  ("  shekar  "  in  Hebrew  and  "  methuo  " 
in  Greek)  made  by  Castell  and  Cocceius,  proves 
conclusively  that  wisdom  guided  the  Greek  and 
Latin,  as  well  as  the  German  and  English  trans- 
lators of  these  terms.  Thus  in  Gen.  ix.  21, 
where  "  yayin,"  wine,  is  directly  mentioned,  and 
where  its  nature  is  made  clear  by  its  effects,  the 
act  of  imbibing  is  expressed  by  the  Hebrew 
"  shatah,"  by  the  Greek  "  pio,"  by  the  Latin 
"  bibo,"  by  the  German  "  trinken,"  and  by  the 
English  "  drink ";  while  the  effect  produced  is 
presented  by  the  Hebrew  "  shakar,"  by  the 
Greek  "  methuo,"  by  the  German  "  trinken," 
and  by  the  English  "  drink."  Again,  in  Gen. 
xliii.  34,  where  the  word  "  yayin  "  is  not  men- 
tioned, but  only  implied,  though  the  wines  are 
proved  to  have  been  prepared  by  art,  and  spe- 
cially guarded  in  oil-covered  jars  from  alcoholic 
ferment,  the  same  Hebrew,  Greek,  and  Latin 
specific  and  contrasted  terms  are  found  as  at 
Gen.  ix.  21 ;  while  the  German  gives  the  com- 
mon term  "  trinken,"  and  the  English  translates 
"were  merry."  The  care  with  which  modern 
revisers  weigh  every  word  is  but  an  index  to 
the   care   of  these   more    responsible   original 


450  The  Divine  Lain  as  to  Wines. 

translators.  Again,  in  Jacob's  statement,  Gen. 
xlix.  II,  "He  washed  his  garments  in  wine," 
where  of  course  the  fresh  grape-juice  trodden 
out  in  the  vat  is  referred  to,  it  seems  a  violence 
to  language  not  to  recognize  that  "yayin"  is 
generic,  including  the  fresh  product.  Yet  again, 
when  in  Num.  xv.  5,  xviii.  12,  and  xxviii.  14,  and 
again  in  Deut.  xxviii.  39,  51,  and  in  Neh.  xiii.  5, 
12,  15,  "  tirosh  "  and  **  yayin  "  are,  in  the  earliest 
and  latest  history,  brought  into  such  intimate 
relations  as  fresh  products  of  the  earth  and  as 
offerings  presented  to  God,  the  thoughtful 
reader  can  hardly  resist  the  conviction  that 
Stuart  was  intelligent  in  his  statement :  "  When- 
ever the  Scriptures  speak  of  wine  as  a  comfort, 
a  blessing,  or  a  libation  to  God,  and  rank  it  with 
such  articles  as  corn  and  oil,  they  mean — they 
can  mean — only  such  wine  as  contained  no  alcohol 
that  could  have  a  mischievous  tendency."  Yet 
once  again :  When  in  the  statements  of  Solomon 
we  read  "Wine  is  a  mocker"  (Prov.  xx.  i), 
"  Look  not  on  the  wine"  (xxiii.  31),  "  It  is  not 
for  princes  to  drink  wine  "  (xxxi.  4)  ;  and  again, 
on  the  contrary,  we  read  of  "  treading,"  and 
"gathering,"  and  "pressing"  wine  (Isa.  xvi. 
10;  Jer.xl.  10;  xlviii.  33),  and  of  children  crying 
to  their  mothers^  "  Where  is  the  corn  and  the 
wine  ? "  (Lam  ii.  12) — the  common  reader  antic- 
ipates the  scieiitific  philologian  in  his  assurance 


Care  in  Old  Testament  Comments.      451 

that  the  wine  forbidden  to  youth  and  to  states- 
men can  not  be  the  wine  fresh  from  the  cluster, 
which  is  as  truly  as  wheat  fit  food  for  infant 
children.  For,  although  before  scientific  and 
philological  testimony  a  clear  reasoner  would 
hesitate  to  accept  the  a  priori  argument  of  Dr. 
Rich,  yet  when  that  chain  of  testimony  has  con- 
firmed the  fact  that  yayin  is  thus  generic,  the 
induction  from  facts  compels  the  acceptance  ol 
that  moral  conviction  as  a  rule  both  of  judgment 
and  of  action. 

A  single  passage  may  be  taken  as  illustrative 
of  the  amount  of  care  bestowed  on  the  interpre- 
tation of  many  passages.  In  the  English  ver- 
sion, Joel  i.  5  is  thus  rendered :  "  Howl,  all  ye 
drinkers  of  wine,  because  of  the  new  wine."  In 
the  Hebrew  is  found,  "  yayin  'al  'asis  ";  in  the 
Greek,  "  oinon  eis  methen ";  in  the  Latin, 
"vinum  in  dulcedine ";  in  the  German,  "wein 
am  den  most";  the  French  of  1805  is,  "vin,  ^ 
cause  de  la  liqueur  qui  sort  de  la  vendage "; 
and  Cabey's  version  of  1843  has,  "^  cause  du 
jus  de  raisin."  On  this  passage  Jerome  com- 
ments at  length,  showing  that  his  mind  is  on 
Pliny's  statement  that  feasts  are  begun  with 
unintoxicating  products  of  the  grape,  and  even 
with  syrup  and  water;  he  urges  "  dulcia  enim 
sunt  vitia,"  for  sweet  wines  are  vices ;  he  cites 
the  harlot's  art  to  begin  with  honey  (Prov.  v.  3) 


452  The  Divme  Law  as  to  Wines. 

and  end  with  mingled  wine  (ix.  3,  5),  and  he 
cites  Eph.  v.  18,  and  his  comments  on  it,  in  which 
wine  is  generic,  covering  all  kinds,  while  the 
"asotia"  is  in  the  use^  not  in  the  excessive  use 
of  wine.  Maurer,  one  of  the  most  exhaustive 
of  modern  German  commentators  on  the  Minor 
Prophets,  quotes  at  length  from  Jerome  on  this 
passage  ;  especially  showing  that  "  *asis "  is 
"  mustum  dulce,  ex  uvis,  aut  aliis  fructibus, 
expressum,"  sweet  must  pressed  out  of  grapes 
and  other  fruits;  while  "tirosh"  is  "mustum 
expressum  ex  solis  uvis,"  must  pressed  out  of 
grapes  alone ;  while  as  to  both  he  uses  the  ex- 
pression, "  succus  calcando  expressus,"  must 
pressed  out  by  treading,  i.  e.,  before  the  grapes 
are  put  in  the  press.  Tracing  a  long  line  of 
commentators,  two  distinct  views  are  found  to 
have  guided  translators  in  reaching  the  connec- 
tion indicated  by  the  preposition  "  'al  "  of  Joel, 
*'  eis  "  of  the  Greek  translators,  "  in  "  of  Jerome, 
and  "  um  "  of  Luther.  First,  it  may  have  been 
the  drinker's  view  o(  the /uture,  when  the  fresh 
trodden  must,  of  which  his  wine  is  made,  would 
fail,  that  would  cause  his  howl  of  despair ;  or, 
second,  his  present  physical  condition,  proceed- 
ing from  the  fresh  must  with  which  he  began 
to  strong  wine,  may  cause  his  howl  of  drunken 
debauch.  Jerome  seems  to  have  found  this 
latter  idea  in  the  Hebrew  and  Greek ;  and  this, 


Christ' s  Use  of  Unintoxicating  Wines.  453 

too,  seems  to  have  guided  Luther  in  his  render- 
ing. Certainly  translators  and  commentators 
have  been  prompted  by  sincere  desire  to  know 
the  exact  teaching  of  God's  words  as  to  wines  ; 
or  they  would  not  have  pursued,  on  a  single 
statement,  such  exhaustive  research. 

In  the  New  Testament  the  naming  of  "  oinos  " 
as  a  universal  genus,  and  of  "  gleukos  "  as  the 
lowest  species,  are  so  manifest  that  few  are 
found  to  question  the  fact.  The  term  "  oinos  " 
certainly  includes  the  "  neos  oinos,"  or  new  wine, 
when  yet  unfermented  it  is  put  into  the  bottles. 
The  wine  made  by  Christ  at  the  wedding  has 
this  succession  of  testimonials  in  confirmation  : 
first,  the  fact  that  conforming  Jews,  of  whom 
Jesus  through  His  life  was  one,  from  time  imme- 
morial have  used  unfermented  wine  at  wed- 
dings ;  second,  the  best,  most  costly,  and  always 
first-used  wine,  in  ancient  and  modern  banquets, 
has  been  the  lightest,  and  among  the  Romans 
this  was  unfermented ;  third,  Cyril,  bishop  ot 
the  Church  in  Jerusalem  about  a.d.  380,  ex- 
pressly declares  this,  while  Geikie,  in  his  now 
popular  life  of  Christ,  returns  to  the  early 
Christian  view  as  to  the  nature  of  the  miracle. 
As  to  the  charge  against  Christ  that  He  was  a 
"  wine-bibber,"  all  Christians  regard  it  as  much 
a  calumny  as  that  He  was  a  "  glutton  "  and  a 
"  friend  "  of  abandoned  women.    That  the  "  fruit 


454  ^^^  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines, 

of  the  vine "  used  at  the  supper  was  unfer- 
mented,  is  confirmed  by  these  testimonies :  first, 
the  natural  meaning  of  the  terms  "  fruit  of  the 
vine  ";  second,  the  immemorial  custom  of  con- 
scientious Jews  at  their  Passover,  which  "  cup  " 
was  the  same  used  by  Christ  at  the  institution 
of  the  Supper  ;  third,  the  direct  statements  from 
Clement,  a.d  2Cx:),  to  Jerome,  a.d.  400.  That 
the  "  gleukos "  was  unintoxicating  Cyril  de- 
clared A.D.  380,  while  writers  of  the  views  of 
Horace  Bumstead  now  admit  this ;  and  that 
"  gleukos  "  was  included  under  "  oinos  "  lexicog- 
raphers of  every  age  and  land  agree.  As  to  the 
view  of  Paul's  advice  to  Timothy,  the  accordant 
statements  of  Eusebius,  a.d.  320,  of  Athanasius, 
A.D.  325,  of  Cyril,  a.d.  380,  and  of  Jerome, 
A.D.  400,  that  Paul  commended  abstinence  in 
Timothy  (i  Tim.  v.  23),  as  he  had  before  en- 
joined it  on  the  Church  of  which  he  was  pastor 
(Eph.  V.  18),  is  in  accordance  with  all  ancient 
and  modern  legislation  as  to  wines.  As  to  the 
quality  of  the  wines  commended  by  Paul,  Roman 
writers  and  their  French  annotators  show  that 
"must"  is  their  basis,  if  not  their  only  ingre- 
dient ;  for  it  is  not  the  alcohol,  but  the  nourish- 
ing ingredients  of  wines,  that  constitutes  their 
utility  in  chronic  indigestion  ;  while  strong  alco- 
holic wines  were  commended  by  Greek  and 
Roman  physicians  for  acute  and  painful  disease, 
such  as  strangury  and  dysentery. 


Conimcn   Ground  for  Christians.      455 

COMMON    GROUND     FOR    AMERICAN     PHILANTHRO- 
PISTS   AND    CHRISTIANS. 

That  it  was  not  the  excess,  but  the  use  of 
wines,  which  the  ancients  sought  to  control  by 
law  is  seen  in  the  entire  hst  of  prohibitions  to 
youth,  to  women,  to  nurses,  to  men  in  pubHc 
service,  which  Plato  and  Aristotle,  Numa  and 
Cato  urged.  That  it  is  not  the  excessive  use, 
but  the  intoxicant  itself,  that  controls  modern 
legislation  is  attested  by  the  fact  that  it  is  not 
bread-shops,  nor  milk-dealers,  that  need  to  be 
restrained  and  prohibited ;  while  all  unite  in  the 
effort  to  restrict  and  suppress  beer-saloons,  and 
to  supplant  them  by  coffee-shops.  It  is  not 
wines,  but  intoxicating  wines,  that  earnest 
Christian  leaders  seek  to  have  exchanged  for 
the  ancient  unintoxicating  wines;  which  Pliny 
states,  though  costly,  as  were  choice  fruits,  were 
sought  for  the  wealthy  of  his  day.  It  is  such 
wines  that  are  now  sought  for  the  tables  of  the 
princely  in  wealth  and  intellect ;  and  above  all, 
for  the  table  of  the  Lord  around  which  the  rich 
and  the  poor  meet  together.  The  noble  con- 
descension, if  not  the  conscientious  conviction, 
of  American  Christians  can  not  fall  behind  that 
of  Churchmen  of  England  in  seeking  and  per- 
mitting the  use  of  such  wines. 

In  closing  this  supplement  to  the  "  Divine 


456  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

Law  as  to  Wines,"  it  is  a  cause  of  gratitude  and 
gratulation  that  so  little  in  the  former  aro^ument 
or  statement  requires  modification ;  and  espe- 
cially that  no  word  used  in  criticism  requires  to 
be  withdrawn.  The  reputed  writer  of  the  article 
in  the  Princeton  Review  of  April,  1841,  has  been 
an  esteemed  and  venerated  associate  in  works 
of  Christian  philanthropy  for  more  than- thirty 
years ;  and  the  present  prominent  advocate  of 
the  opposing  theory  as  to  wines  is  an  admired 
co-laborer  in  literary,  educational,  and  Christian 
enterprise.  The  balance  of  congenial  yet  coun- 
terpart affinities  and  convictions  only  tends  to 
strengthen  the  bond  which  maintains  comple- 
mentary truth.  This  genuine  charity  assures 
the  hope  and  confirms  the  faith  that  the  state- 
ment as  to  the  former  work  may  be  realized 
which  came  from  the  pen  of  the  venerated  Dr. 
Meyrowitz;  who  as  a  Hebrew-Christian  scholar 
is  an  intelligent  judge,  and  as  a  non  abstainer 
is  an  impartial  umpire,  in  affirming:  "Even 
those  readers  who  may  not  agree  with  him  on 
the  point  of  total  abstinence  must  nevertheless 
admire  the  erudition  of  the  writer ;  and  the 
whole  will,  under  God's  blessing,  serve  *  ad 
major  em  Dei  gloriaml  " 


EARLY    CHRISTIAN   FATHERS    ON 
UNINTOXICATING   WINES. 


REVIEW    PROMPTING    THE    SECOND    SUPPLEMENT. 

Called  again,  seven  years  after  beginning 
the  survey,  to  develop  more  fully  another  field 
of  testimonies  as  to  wines,  one  specially  contro- 
verted,— seeking  impartially  the  teachings  of  the 
early  Christian  writers  that  the  Lord  God,  man's 
only  Redeemer,  did  not  fall  behind  Roman 
virtue,  and  especially  that  He  did  not  become 
the  maker  and  drinker  of  intoxicating  wine,  still 
less  that  He  compelled  for  all  time  the  use  of 
such  wine  in  His  sacred  ordinance  of  the  Supper, 
— the  writer  pauses,  not  daring  to  drown  the 
voice  of  memories  blest  to  himself;  assured  that 
they  ought  to  be  stated  to  those  who  need  to 
see  the  truth  and  to  follow  the  right  at  the 
present  crisis  in  American  social,  national,  and 
Christian  reform. 

Blessed  with  a  maternal  grandfather  present 
at  the  struggle  of  Bunker  Hill  and  responsible 
then  as  a  legislator,  whose  resistance  to  church 
20  (457) 


458  The  Divme  Law  as  to  Wines. 

corruption  led  him  to  the  extreme  of  free-think- 
ers, equally  blessed  with  a  father  who,  as  a 
clergyman,  was  a  staunch  supporter  of  evangel- 
ical Gospel  truth,  listening,  as  a  child,  to  dis- 
cussions of  the  three  great  American  ideas  al- 
luded to  in  the  introduction  to  this  volume, — 
liberty  in  religious  worship,  servitude  only 
minorage  guardianship,  constitutional  restric- 
tions as  well  as  guarantees, — the  memories  of 
the  accordant  views  of  both  these  ancestors  as 
to  reform  in  "drinking-customs,"  are  as  vivid  as 
if  listened  to  but  yesterday.  Never  will  the 
memory  fade  of  the  relief  that  came  to  both,  the 
reverent  sire  and  the  philanthropic  grandsire, 
when  Prof  Moses  Stuart,  of  Andover,  put  forth 
the  declaration  stated  on  p.  330.  It  was  a  truth 
in  science,  morals,  and  religion, — like  other  con- 
victions of  that  leader  in  the  American  School 
of  Christian  Science, — which  has  laid  the  cor- 
ner-stone of  American  virtue,  while  it  is  also  a 
"foundation-stone"  in  that  structure  of  Divine 
truth  and  grace  on  which  human  redemption 
rests. 

When  in  the  spring  of  1877  a  criticism  ap- 
peared in  the  Exa7niner  of  New  York  upon  a 
proposition  of  a  Presbyterian  Synod  that  "un- 
fermented  wine"  be  used  at  the  communion,  in 
which  it  was  urged  that  its  employ  was  a  duty 
to  many  reformed  inebriates  who  plead  for  it, 


Origin  of  Discussion.  459 

and  when  the  writer  of  that  criticism  stated  that 
no  such  article  ever  existed,  the  memory  of 
Stuart,  of  that  sainted  father,  of  that  philanthrop- 
ic and  truly  devout  grandfather,  could  not  be 
silenced.  A  courteous  hearing-,  begun  May  17, 
1 877,  was  granted  in  the  columns  of  that  journal ; 
successive  rejoinders  coming  from  the  pen  of 
one  scholarly  opposer,  but,  as  was  lately  an- 
nounced, from  the  concurrence  of  three  other 
esteemed  scholars.  That  discussion  led  to  a 
request  from  esteemed  leaders  of  different  Chris- 
tian denominations,  enforced  by  votes  of  two 
temperance  organizations,  that  the  entire  range 
of  testimonies  be  presented  as  to  the  existence 
of  "unfermented  wine."  During  a  five  years' 
survey  this  provision  was  found  in  all  ages  to 
be  so  linked  with  the  evils  which  its  invention 
was  designed  to  overcome  that  the  two  could 
not  be  separated  That  survey  would  have 
been  impossible  but  for  previous  exhaustive 
studies,  prosecuted  from  boyhood,  in  the  history 
of  science ;  as  it  was  applied  to  magic  and  the 
fine  arts,  to  ethics  and  laws,  and  to  philosophy 
and  religion ;  whose  results,  in  published  works, 
led  to  the  call.  The  result  was  the  volume  en- 
titled "  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines,"  published 
by  the  "  National  Temperance  Society  and  Pub- 
lication House,"  at  58  Reade  Street,  New  York, 
in   1880.     The  field  was  so  extended,  the  de- 


460  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

mand  for  condensation  was  so  great,  the  care 
in  abbreviated  digests  was  so  difficult,  and  the 
impossibility  of  entire  exemption  from  typo- 
graphical error  was  so  certain  that  its  invitations 
to  specialist-critics  was  expected  and  cheerfully 
accepted.  The  result  has  proved,  however, 
that  every  link  in  the  long  chain  of  truth  was  so 
scanned  beforehand  that  no  grave  error  has 
been  detected;  the  laches  in  the  voluminous 
record  of  testimonies  have,  to  impartial  judges, 
revealed  the  fairness  which  so  fully  quoted 
authorities  that  no  hidden  tracks  could  be 
concealed ;  the  spirit  of  courtesy  has  won  the 
highest  expressions  of  increased  attachment 
from  the  venerable  leader,  in  opposition  to 
Stuart,  alluded  to  on  p.  456;  while  in  his  re- 
cently published  dissent  the  other  esteemed  co- 
laborer,  alluded  to  on  the  same  page,  associated 
with  the  writer  as  a  peace-maker  seeking  an 
"irenicon"  in  more  than  one  field  of  Christian 
survey,  has  frankly  stated  that  he  had  not  read 
the  Supplement  entitled  "Science  Interpreting 
History  as  to  Unfermented  Wine,"  when  that 
dissent  was  expressed.  The  call  for  the  fuller 
statement  of  the  early  Christian  Fathers  comes 
when  four  added  years  have  made  wondrous 
added  progress  in  practical  acceptance  of  the 
truth  recorded  on  pp.  328-9.  In  that  paper  the 
term  "unfermented"  was  properly   applied  to 


Occasion  for  Second  Supplement,       46 1 

wines,  because  it  is  the  term  of  modern  science, 
as  also  of  Roman  writers.  In  the  paper  here 
added  the  term  "  unintoxicated "  is  used,  be- 
cause the  Christian  Fathers  dwelt  on  the  effect 
rather  than  on  the  cause  of  the  intoxicating 
element  in  wines. 


THE    SPECIAL   OCCASION    FOR   THE    SECOND 
SUPPLEMENT. 

Since  the  issue  of  the  foregoing  Supplement, 
exception  has  been  taken  to  citations  from  Cle- 
ment and  other  Christian  Fathers  ;  as  prior  to 
its  appearance  the  translations  from  Pliny  and 
other  Roman  writers  had  been  controverted. 
The  second  article  of  Dr.  Moore  in  the  Presby- 
terian Review,  whose  first  article  was  fully  con- 
sidered in  the  former  "Supplement"  to  this 
work,  makes  reference  to  the  citations  from  the 
Fathers ;  but  its  appearance  was  delayed  until 
that  Supplement  was  issued  from  the  press. 
Various  other  critics  have  noticed  the  state- 
ments of  the  volume.  The  words  "  direct  state- 
ments "  applied  to  Clement  and  Jerome  (p.  454)  ; 
the  expression  "  commended  unintoxicating 
wine  "  attributed  to  Ambrose,  Chrysostom,  and 
x^ugustine  (p.  216);  Cyril's  reference  to  John 
ii.  10  (p.  212);  the  meaning  of  "e!-jedid"  (p. 
223) ;    and  the  use  of  quotation    marks   with 


462  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

"mustum"  (p.  133),  have  been  specially  called 
in  question.  Other  minor  criticisms  may  be 
noted  so  far  as  relevant. 

Statements  appear  "  direct "  only  when  the  sub- 
ject to  which  they  refer  has  been  distinctly  un- 
derstood ;  a  fact  especially  true  in  the  study  01 
profound  writers  like  Aristotle,  the  apostle 
Paul,  Clement,  and  Jerome.  Agassiz  often 
quoted  direct  statements  of  Aristotle's  Natural 
History  which  anticipated  his  discoveries ;  and 
in  his  last  course  of  lectures  at  Cambridge  he 
declared  there  were  many  statements  of  that 
"Father  of  Natural  History"  which  can  not  be 
translated  till  their  subject  is  made  clear  by  re- 
discovery. Bancroft,  the  historian,  expressed 
surprise  when  Paul's  statements  (Phil.  ii.  12,  13) 
were  quoted,  that  their  balanced  harmony  had 
not  by  himself  been  perceived.  Champollion, 
landing-  at  Alexandria,  Egypt,  to  verify  his 
hieroglyphic  system,  was  astonished  when  a 
Greek  monk  pointed  out  the  full  statement  of 
Clement  (Strom,  v.  4).  Careful  scholars  see 
harmony  in  Jerome's  only  apparently  opposite 
statements  as  to  the  apostle  Peter ;  that  he  was 
only  a  "presbyter"  (i  Peter  v.  i),  and  yet 
"  held  a  sacerdotal  chair  ('  cathedram  sacerdo- 
talem '  List  of  Apostles)  twenty-five  years,"  and 
"  was  eminent  ('praefuit,'  Cont.  Ruf  iii.)  twenty- 
four    years "  at  Rome ;   his  superior  apostolic 


Principles  of  Interpreting  Fathers.     463 

authority  beginning  a.d.  42,  with  his  Divine 
guidance  in  the  baptism  of  the  first  Roman  con- 
vert (Acts  X.) ;  his  recognized  eminence  at 
Rome  appearing  there  the  following  year,  a.d. 
43  (Acts  xi.  2,  18,  and  xii.  17)  ;  while  his  martyr- 
dom occurred  a.d.  6']^ 


PRINCIPLES    RULING    INTERPRETATION    OF    THE 
CHRISTIAN    FATHERS. 

In  applying  these  principles  to  the  statements 
of  the  Christian  Fathers  as  to  "wines,"  these 
facts  should  be  borne  constantly  in  mind. 
Nearly  all  these  early  writers  were  called  to 
meet  the  extreme  views  of  Christians  who  con- 
tended that  wine  of  no  kind  should  be  used,  not 
even  at  the  Lord's  Supper.  These  conscien- 
tious men  argued  that  wine  was  not  known  be- 
fore the  flood  ;  that  Noah  sinned  in  making  and 
using  it;  that  the  Nazarite  law  of  Moses,  ad- 
hered to  by  Samson,  Samuel,  Elijah,  Daniel, 
John,  and  Timothy,  was  the  Divine  law  ;  while 
they  overlooked  the  fact  that  Jesus  himself 
made  and  used  wine.  Hence,  in  meeting  these 
scruples  it  was  necessary  that  the  line  be  drawn 
between  intoxicating  and  unintoxicating  wines  ; 
known  in  Isaac's  day  in  the  "tirosh";  specially 
impressive  in  the  Roman  virtue  which  sought 
unfermented  wines;  and  recognized  in  the  im- 


464  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

memorial  custom  of  the  Jews  at  their  Passover 
and  at  weddings  ;  the  testimonies  to  which  facts 
fill  the  pages  of  this  volume.  That  all  these 
facts  were  before  the  minds  of  the  early  Chris- 
tian Fathers  their  constant  allusions  show ;  and 
the  subject -7natter  as  to  wines,  attested  now  by 
French  commentators  on  the  Roman  writers, 
must  determine  the  character  of  their  state- 
ments. 

Two  principles  of  more  vital  importance  must 
be  borne  in  mind.  The  materialistic  tendencies 
of  modern  German  Biblical  criticism,  and  the 
charge  on  their  part  that  the  spiritual  interpre- 
tation of  the  Old  Testament  held  in  all  ages 
by  experimental  Christians  is  traditional,  and 
hence  unreliable, — both  these  tendencies  of  the 
modern  philological  school  are  to  be  carefully 
guarded  against;  and  for  these  reasons  :  First, 
tradition  as  to  fact  is  "  history";  it  is  the  record 
of  phenomena  observed,  on  which,  as  Bacon 
urged  and  Newton  verified,  all  science  must 
rest.  Christ  rejected  traditional  opinions,  not 
historic  facts  clearly  stated  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment (Matt.  XV.  2-6).  Paul,  also,  while  reject- 
ing traditions  as  to  the  efficacy  of  ordinances 
(Gal.  i.  14;  Col.  ii.  8,)  referred  to  the  fact  that, 
prior  to  the  writing  of  the  Gospels,  all  the  historic 
facts  of  Christianity  were  "  traditions  "  and  "or- 
dinances "  traditionally  reported  ;  and  that  these 


False  use  of  Term  '*  Traditionaiy       465 

"traditions"  were  the  very  ground  of  New 
Testament  truth  (2  Thess.  ii.  15;  1  Cor.  xi.  2). 
Dr.  Robinson  taught  that  "traditions"  as  to 
localities  and  to  historic  events  in  Palestine  are 
to  be  trusted  as  implicitly  as  in  any  other  land ; 
while  relics  and  traditional  inferences  from  facts 
are  untrustworthy.  If  the  opinion  as  to  the 
efficacy  of  the  wine  at  the  Supper,  entertained  by 
many  of  the  Fathers,  is  to  be  discarded,  the  fact 
that  the  wine  used  was  "  must,"  or  wine  kept 
in  "  oiled  skins,"  and  "  wine  mixed  with  water  " 
when  wine  entirely  free  from  alcohol  could  not 
be  obtained — these  statements  of  fact,  not  of 
opinion,  must  be  received ;  otherwise  all  his- 
tory must  be  rejected.  Second,  When  the  early 
Christian  Fathers  find  the  spiritual  truth  of 
the  Lord's  Supper  in  the  Old  Testament 
allusions  to  wines  which  bless,  not  in  those 
that  blast  the  drinker,  they  are  certainly  inter- 
preting the  Old  Testament  as  did  Christ 
and  Paul.  The  frankness  with  which  the 
"  philological  "  as  opposed  to  the  experimental 
school  of  Biblical  criticism  now  avow  that  Paul 
misinterpreted  the  Old  Testament  when  he 
found  spiritual  as  well  as  secular  truth  in  their 
statements, — this  frank  avowal  should  prompt 
impartial  judgment  even  as  to  the  opinions  of 
the  Fathers ;  while  French  experts,  rather  than 


466  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

German  speculative  interpreters,  must  be  trust- 
ed as  io  facts. 


NUMBER   OF   WRITERS,  AND    THEIR    INTERPRETERS. 

No  less  than  fifteen  of  these  Fathers  are  cited 
in  this  volume ;  and  to  this  list  five  or  six  more 
must  be  added,  that  their  united  testimony,  as 
well  as  their  accord  with  Roman  writers,  may- 
be made  manifest.  The  leading  Fathers,  who 
give  special  testimony  on  wines,  some  writing 
in  Greek,  but  more  in  Latin,  grouped  as  to  loca- 
tion, yet  all  living  under  Roman  law,  and  from 
the  second  to  the  fifth  centuries  after  Christ,  are 
these:  in  Gaul,  or  France,  Irenaeus,  177  to  202, 
and  Hilarius,  350  to  356;  in  N.  Italy,  Zeno, 
260  to  268,  and  Ambrose,  370  to  397 ;  at  Con- 
stantinople, Lactantius,  320  to  330,  and  Chry- 
sostom,  381  to  407;  in  Asia  Minor,  Basil,  370 
to  379;  in  Cyprus,  Epiphanius,  367  to  402  ;  on 
the  Euphrates,  Theodoret,  420  to  457;  in  Pal- 
estine, Eusebius  315  to  340,  Cyril  381  to  386, 
and  Jerome  367  to  420;  in  Egypt,  Justin,  150 
to  165,  Clement  191  to  202,  Origen  228  to 
254,  and  Athanasius  335  to  373  ;  at  Carthage, 
Tertullian,  a.d.  197  to  211,  Cyprian  248  to  258, 
Arnobius  300  to  310,  and  Augustine  387  to 
430.  In  citing  these  witnesses,  skirting  the  en- 
tire Mediterranean,  the  order  of  the  centuries, 


French  Editors  Experts  on  Wines.     467 

from  the  second  to  the  fifth,  may  be  followed ; 
while  the  order  of  place  under  each  century 
may  be  also  observed.  As  the  comments  and 
appended  documents  of  editors  are  an  indis- 
pensable guide  to  the  interpretation  of  the 
Christian  Fathers,  and  as  the  French  are  the 
best  acquainted  with  wines,  not  only  German 
and  English  editions,  but  also  French  editions 
must  guide.  Among  such  editions  those  of 
Migne  are  superior;  whose  series  of  the  Latin 
Fathers,  beginning  with  Tertullian,  was  issued 
at  Paris  in  1844 ;  and  whose  series  of  the  Greek 
Fathers,  beginning  with  Clement  of  Rome,  was 
published  in  1857,  The  illustrative  notes  of 
Migne,  drawn  from  Roman  and  later  writers, 
and  written  in  the  only  country  that  fully  keeps 
up  the  customs  of  ancient  wine-making  coun- 
tries, are  an  invaluable  aid  in  translation.  The 
vital  and  deciding  guide  in  weighing  the  testi- 
mony of  these  Fathers  is  presented  in  the  state- 
ment of  Dr.  A.  A.  Hodge,  of  Princeton,  in  his 
balanced  criticism  on  the  second  article  of  Dr. 
Dunlop  Moore,  found  at  p.  395  of  the  Presby- 
terian Review  for  April,  1882.  Dr.  Hodge 
says :  "  The  single  point  essential  to  the  posi- 
tion of  Dr.  Moore,  and  those  who  sympathize 
with  him,  is  the  fact  that  the  word  'wine'  means 
only  and  always  juice  of  the  grape  fermented^ 
and  that  the  same   was    made  and  drunk   by 


468  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

Christ,  and  used  by  Him  as  one  of  the  elements 
of  the  Last  Supper."  Attested  as  the  counter 
fact  is  by  the  French  and  Roman  authorities 
cited  in  the  first  Supplement,  Dr.  Hodge's  prin- 
ciple must  be  accepted  as  a  controlling  guide  in 
interpreting  the  statements  of  the  early  Chris- 
tian Fathers. 


JUSTIN   AND    IRENiEUS    IN    THE    SECOND    CENTURY. 

Justin,  writing  in  Greek,  at  Alexandria,  Egypt, 
A.D.  150  to  165,  in  his  dialogue  with  Trypho 
the  Jew  (c.  69),  draws  attention  to  the  contrast, 
in  Jacob's  blessing  on  Judah,  between  the 
"wine"  which  is  the  "blood  of  the  grapes"  and 
that  which  makes  "the  eyes  red"  (Gen.  xlix. 
II  and  12);  and  he  says  the  priests  of  Baal 
who  opposed  Elijah,  like  the  Egyptian  priests, 
deified  Bacchus  and  "  introduced  into  his  sacred 
rites"  that  wine  which  Moses  intimated  was 
"  from  the  devil."  Associated  with  the  citations 
before  made  (p.  204)  this  allusion  directly  indi- 
cates the  distinction  in  winea  described  by  Pliny 
a  generation  only  prior  to  Justin's  age.  Irenaeus, 
familiar  in  his  early  life  in  Asia  Minor  with 
primitive  Christian  customs  learned  from  im- 
mediate disciples  of  John,  bishop  at  Lyons, 
France,  a.d.  177  to  202,  familiar  certainly  with 
wine-making  in  Southern  France,  meeting  the 


Clement,  the  Leading  Early  Witness.    469 

extremists  who  would  exclude  wine  even  from 
the  Lord's  Supper,  indicates  clearly  the  custom 
to  which  his  successors  allude  when  he  meets 
the  objection  to  the  use  of  wine  at  the  Supper, 
by  the  fact  that  it  was  a  "  mingled  cup  "  (p.  203). 
These  preceding-  testimonies,  that  of  Justin 
living  at  the  same  location  especially,  throw 
light  on  the  testimony  given  in  the  next  genera- 
tion. 


CLEMENT,    THE    LEADING    WITNESS,    CLOSING    THE 
SECOND    CENTURY. 

Clement,  the  profound  and  comprehensive 
Greek  scholar,  writing,  a.d,  191  to  202,  at  Alex- 
andria, Egypt,  familiar  alike  with  Grecian  phi- 
losophy, Roman  science,  and  Egyptian  mys- 
teries, is,  as  all  thorough  students  have  agreed, 
perfectly  labyrinthine  in  the  intricacies  of  his  cita- 
tions. In  his  "  Paidagogos,"  or  Disciplinarian, 
treating  of  physical  as  well  as  of  mental  training, 
he  gives  two  long  chapters  to  diet  (B.  II.,  c. 
i.  and  ii.).  He  quotes  directly  Plato,  Aristotle, 
and  other  writers  who  discuss  "wines";  and 
he  indirectly  or  directly  cites  from  the  whole 
field  of  Grecian  and  Roman  as  well  as  of  Old 
and  New  Testament  literature.  His  editors, 
especially  Migne,  quotes  Plautus,  Pindar, 
Cicero,    Virgil,     Columella,    Varro,     Plutarch, 


470  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

Galen,  and  others ;  the  very  men  who  treat  of 
unfermented  wines  as  the  resort  of  Roman 
wisdom.  In  his  first  note,  on  ch.  i.,  Migne 
quotes  this  statement  of  Heinsius  :  "  Nothing 
is  more  common  (familiarius)  with  Clement 
than  to  cite,  as  they  come  into  his  mind,  or  to 
accommodate  to  his  purpose,  mere  clauses 
(versiculos)  of  authors  ";  and  in  some  cases  the 
editor  is  in  doubt,  after  quoting  four  or  five 
Greek  poets,  to  decide  which  was  in  Clement's 
mind  as  he  wrote.  The  extreme  conciseness 
compelled  in  the  citations  made  pp.  199  to  202, 
and  the  difficulty  of  guarding  by  full  and  half 
quotation  marks  between  quotations,  citations, 
and  quotations  within  citations,  requires  the 
more  complete  and  yet  necessarily  select  and 
condensed  abstract  which  follows. 

In  ch.  i.,  on  "  Feasting,"  the  use  of  wine  is 
prominent.  Clement  says  :  "  We  do  not  abol- 
ish social  intercourse ;  but  we  look  with  sus- 
picion on  the  snares  of  custom  as  a  calamity." 
Quoting  from  Antiphanes,  a  Greek  poet  of  about 
B.C.  370,  he  condemns,  as  Paul  does  (i  Cor.  xi. 
17-22),  the  associating  of  a  feast  with  the 
Lord's  Supper;  and  says :  "The  Supper  (de- 
ipnon)  is  through  love  (di'agapen),  but  is  not 
love  (agape)."  Migne,  in  a  note,  observes  that 
both  Jewish  and  Grecian  "  snares  of  custom  " 
are   here  in  Clement's  mind.     Citing  the  word 


Pythagoreans  and  Paul  on  Wine.       471 

"asotia"  (Eph.  v.  18),  Clement  says  that  the 
abandoned  are  called  "  asotous,"  since  they  are 
"  asostous,"  past  salvation  ;  and  he  cites  in  point 
the  Epicurean  motto,  quoted  by  Paul  (i  Cor. 
XV.  32),  as  opposed  to  Gospel  redemption. 
He  then  cites  Paul's  recommendation  of  absti- 
nence from  wine  (Rom.  xiv.  21,  22),  and  adds: 
"  he  agrees  in  this  with  the  Pythagoreans." 
Here  Migne,  in  a  note,  quotes  the  Pythagorean 
philosopher  cited  by  Athenseus,  who  says : 
"  The  disciples  of  Pythagoras  drink  no  wine." 
Clement  adds  that  Moses  required  abstinence 
in  priests  (Lev.  x.  9-1 1)  because  of  the  tend- 
ency in  wine-drinkers.  He  alludes  to  John  the 
Baptist  as  "  overstraining  abstinence  "  (hyper- 
teinas  ten  egkrateian),  and  thinks  the  "  Eng- 
kratites,"  or  total  abstainers,  err  as  to  Christ's 
example.  He  cites  Moses'  forbidding  the 
Israelites  to  partake  of  feasts  with  idolaters ; 
and  says  that  "Plato  fanned  the  flame  of 
Hebrew  philosophy  "  when  he  condemned  the 
luxury  which  he  met  at  Syracuse  and  Italy ;  in 
which  allusion  Plato's  laws  (see  pp.  113  to  120) 
are  manifestly  before  his  mind.  Clement  adds 
that  Plato  was  "  not  unacquainted  with  the 
simple  fare  of  David  and  his  men  ";  indicated 
2  Sam.  vi.  19,  as  stated  by  the  "Greek  trans- 
lators ";  an  allusion  of  marked  significance. 
The  Greek  translation  of  the  Hebrew  "  eshi- 


472  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

shah,"  a  translation  made  about  B.C.  250,  was 
"  laganon  apo  teganou,"  a  cake  from  a  frying- 
pan.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Talmudic  com- 
mentators of  Clement's  day  made  it  cognate  to 
the  Aramaean  word  "  'atsits,"  a  wine-flask ; 
whence  our  English  version,  "  a  flagon  of  wine." 
This  derivation  Fuerst  declares  erroneous ; 
while  Gesenius  regards  David's  provision  as 
"raisin-cakes,"  distinct  from  grapes  dried  in  the 
sun,  consolidated  by  pressure;  from  which 
"raisin-drink,"  alluded  to  by  Rev.  Messrs. 
Smith  and  Homes  (pp.  247,  250,  436),  is  still 
prepared.  This  allusion  of  Clement,  and  the 
extended  study  it  requires,  illustrates  Champol- 
lion's  surprise  that  his  mere  allusions  were  "  direct 
statements."  Clement  closes  ch.  i.  with  an  allusion 
to  Aristotle's  law  of  temperance  (see  pp.  123-24) 
which  indicates  that  he  associated  it  with  his 
previous  statements  and  regarded  it  the  Chris- 
tian law. 

Clement  opens  ch.  ii.,  on  "Drinking,"  with 
an  allusion  to  1  Tim.  v.  23,  as  "  a  little  wine," 
and  that  "  only  as  a  medicine  ";  and  his  allusion 
indicates  his  recognition  of  medicinal  wines  as 
made  from  "must,"  and  as  unintoxicating.  This 
the  French  editor  indicates  ;  since  he  frequently 
cites  the  Roman  writers  who  preceded  Clement 
and  recogfnizes  the  statements  of  French  com- 
mentators  on  those  writers  (see  pp.  357,  370, 


"  Wine  and  Water  "  at  Lord's  Supper.     473 

394  to  397).  Alluding,  then,  to  the  wine  of  the 
Lord's  Supper,  he  mentions  it  as  "  the  blood  of 
the  grape-cluster "  (aima  tes  staphulgs) ;  and 
then  twice  alludes  to  the  fact  that  in  his  day 
"wine  mixed  with  water"  was  used.  On  this 
Migne  has  this  note :  "  The  author  alludes  to 
the  Eucharist,  in  which  not  pure  wine  (vinum 
purum)  but  that  diluted  with  water  (aqua  tem- 
peratum)  was  wont  to  be  offered.  Very  many 
Gentiles  (ethnici)  also  drank  undiluted  wine  at 
feasts.  Those  in  the  habit  of  drinking  unmixed 
(merum)  were  held  to  be  disreputable  (infames)." 
Migne  adds :  "  Diluted  wine  was  also  prescribed 
in  the  Jewish  Passover.  Maimonides  refers  to 
this  '  De  solemnitate  Paschali,'  c.  7.  That 
Christ  had  introduced  this  custom  (ritum)  into 
the  Supper,  Irenaeus  thus  records  (tradit.  L.  IV., 
c.  57):  '  temperamentum  calicis,  suum  sangui- 
nem  confirmabat ;  the  dilution  of  the  cup  He  es- 
tablished as  His  blood.'  That  the  ancient 
church  celebrated  the  Eucharist  in  diluted  wine, 
Justin,  the  martyr,  three  times  declares  (Apol. 
I.,  pp.  125,  128,  131,  edit.  Oxon).  Irenaeus 
calls  the  sacred  cup  *  kekrammenon  poterion ' 
(Lib.  v.,  c.  2).  Cyprian  reproves  the  lack  of 
either,  whether  wine  or  water;  saying  (Epist. 
63)  :  '  In  consecrating  (sacrificando)  the  Lord's 
cup,  water  alone  can  not  be  offered,  as  wine 
alone  can  not.'     I  pass  over  remaining  testimo- 


474  ^-^^  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

nies  of  other  ancients  (veterum)   to  the  same 
point." 

Turning  from  the  two  necessary  uses  of 
wine,  as  a  medicine  and  in  the  Lord's  Supper, 
Clement  commends  abstinence  from  it  as  a  bev- 
erage (see  p.  200);  and  adds:  "Water  is  the 
healthful  (physikon),  the  unintoxicating  (ne- 
phalion),  and  the  necessary  (anagkaion)  drink." 
On  the  word  "nephalion,"  here  used,  editors 
cite  Aeschines'  Eumenid.,  107  ;  Sophocles,  O.  C. 
481  ;  Plutarch,  ii.  132,  as  stating  that  the  an- 
cient pure  offerings  to  the  gods  were  "nephaliai 
thusiai,"  unintoxicating  sacrifices,  among  which 
was  unfermented  must.  Clement,  then,  allud- 
ing to  the  theme  of  his  book,  pictures  Israel  as 
"trained  (paidagogemenois)  on  water  in  their 
wandering  "  (planes)  ;  and  adds,  that  on  their 
entering  the  promised  land  "  the  Lord  gave 
them  as  a  sign  (semeion)  the  grape-cluster 
(botrun)  from  Eshcol,  wishing  the  blood  of  the 
grape-bunch  (staphules)  to  be  mixed  with  water 
(hydati  kirnasthai)";  plainly  having  in  mind  that 
fresh  juice  of  the  grape  is  but  sugared  water. 
Clement  adds :  "  Double  (ditton)  is  the  blood 
of  the  Lord ;  wine  with  water."  On  the  word 
"  ditton  "  Migne  cites  the  words  of  Sixtus  Sen- 
ensis  ;  who,  as  Pope,  quotes  the  like  sentiment 
of  Jerome,  and  says:  "The  words  of  Jerome 
are   explained  by  the   rule   concerning   Sacra- 


Wine  as  a  Beverage  to  be  "  Unintoxicatingr  475 

ments  and  the  import  of  the  sacrament  (regulA 
de  sacramentis  et  re  sacramenti)  ;  by  which  we 
are  taught  that  the  blood  of  Christ  is  twofold 
(duplicem)." 

Proceeding,  yet  again,  from  the  use  of  wine 
in  the  Lord's  Supper  to  the  kinds  of  wine  which 
should  be  used  as  a  beverage,  Clement  cites 
two  poets  so  briefly  that  the  editor  seeks  jn 
vain  assurance  as  to  the  author  alluded  to. 
The  first  is  to  this  effect :  "  Do  not  drink 
wine  that  inebriates ";  after  which  Clement 
pictures  the  indulger  as  at  sea  in  a  storm ; 
the  mind  (nous),  the  pilot,  enveloped  in  fog 
(nephele)  ;  the  heart  tossed  as  on  the  waves 
of  the  Libyan  Sea,  where  the  south  and  north 
winds  (Notos  kai  Boreas)  contend ;  and  Cle- 
ment exclaims :  "  Thou  seest  the  hazard  of 
shipwreck."  The  other  is :  "  Akrosphales  gar 
he  tou  oinou  pareisdysis ";  "a  precipice-slip 
is  the  loop-hole  entrance  of  wine."  Migne 
searches  the  Greek  poets  from  Homer  down, 
quoting  several ;  and  leaves  his  reader  in  doubt. 
In  his  picture,  founded  on  these  obscure  cita- 
tions, Clement  says  that  abstaining  from  intoxi- 
cating wine,  "  our  soul  (psyche)  may  commence 
existence  (hyparxai)  pure  (kathara),  dry  (xera) 
and  plant-like  (phytoeides)  ";  and,  he  adds  :  "  A 
clear  light  (auge),  indeed,  is  the  dry  soul,  the 
wisest   and   the    noblest;    nor   is    it   saturated 


476  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

(kathygros)  with  the  fumes  of  wine  (tou  oinou 
thumiasesi)."  The  term  "plant-like"  indi- 
cates that  a  man  who,  like  the  plant,  drinks 
water  is  contrasted  with  the  wine-drinker ; 
while  "dry"  is  contrasted  with  "saturated." 
Migne  proceeds  to  prove  that  "dry  men"  are 
put  "  for  sober  men  "  (sicci  homines  pro  sobriis)  ; 
he  quotes  Plautus,  Pindar,  Cicero,  Plutarch, 
Varro,  Athenseus,  Stobaeus,  Musonius,  and 
others;  and,  to  indicate  that  Clement's  view  of 
Christian  duty  is  in  keeping  with  that  of  other 
early  Christian  writers,  he  cites  the  same  ex- 
pression of  Eusebius  (Prsep.  Evang.  L.,  viii.  c. 
5),  "  the  dry  soul  is  the  wisest  and  the 
noblest." 

Pointing  out,  now,  how  wine  that  is  free 
from  danger  may  be  secured  without  resort  to 
imported  unintoxicating  wines,  Clement  says 
that  it  is  not  necessary  to  go  to  special  loca- 
tions. Alluding  to  "Ariousian"  wine,  obtained 
from  the  Isle  of  Chios,  he  says  that  a  like  native 
wine  may  be  secured,  and  should  satisfy  the 
Christian.  On  this  Migne  cites  Epicurus, 
Strabo,  Plutarch;  adding  that  "very  many" 
agree  as  to  the  nature  of  this  wine.  Migne 
illustrates  its  character  by  this  line  of  Virgil : 
"  Vina  novum  fundam  calathis  Ariusia  nectar." 
Searching  through  the  Greek  and  Roman  au- 
thorities thus  merely  hinted  by  Migne,  this  re- 


Arvislan  Wine  and  Nectar.  ^yy 

suit  is  attained.  The  passage  cited  from  Virgil 
is  found  Eclog.  v.  71.  Ariusum,  written  also 
Arvisum,  is  a  promontory  of  the  Isle  of  Chios, 
whence  nectar-like  wines  were  obtained.  The 
Greek  term  "nectar"  is  derived  from  "  ne," 
privative,  and  the  root  "  ktan,"  meaning  "  de- 
stroying," so  that  nectar  is  a  wine  "  not-destroy- 
ing." In  the  Greek  poets  it  is  the  drink  of 
gods  only  ;  intimating  that  superior  men,  as  the 
Grecian  deities  were,  confine  themselves  to  it. 
Homer  calls  it  "  eruthron,"  red  (II.  xix.  38, 
Odys.  v.  93),  showing  that  it  is  wine ;  Hebe 
pours  it  for  the  gods  (II.  iv.  3)  ;  unlike  intoxi- 
cating wines,  it  is  drunk  unmixed  (Ods.  v.  93)  ; 
it  is  "aporrox"  (Odys.  ix.  359),  ie.,  made 
from  the  dripping  juice  of  grapes  that  have 
burst  their  skins  on  the  cluster  (see  pp.  74,  148) ; 
it  is  "melissa"  (Eurip.  Bacc,  144),  honey-like, 
or  made  of  the  same  pure  saccharine  juice 
as  honey  (see  pp.  109;  374-5  J  380-2;  427). 
Virgil  uses  the  word  "nectar"  four  times.  On 
Eclog.  V.  71,  "I  will  pour  Ariusian  wines,  new 
nectar,  from  lily-shaped  cups,"  the  Delphine 
editor  states  that  in  the  ordinary  Greek 
"crater,"  i.e.,  "horn,"  or  "horn-shaped"  cups, 
the  Greeks  "  mingled  wine  with  water  "  (vinum 
aqui  miscerent)  ;  while  Virgil  states  that  "  fresh 
nectar,"  unintoxicating  wines,  were  poured 
from  "calathis,"  lily-shaped  cups;  in  token,  as 


478  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines, 

editors  intimate,  of  the  purity  of  this  wine.  In 
the  Georgics  (iv.  164)  Virgil,  having  pictured 
the  gangs  of  bees,  some  gathering  food,  others 
building  the  waxen  cells,  others  caring  for  the 
young,  adds :  "  Others  press  out  the  purest 
honies  and  distend  the  cells  with  liquid  nectar." 
In  the  midst  of  the  same  poem  (iv.  384)  he  pic- 
tures the  Nymphs  as  sprinkling  the  fire  on  the 
altar  of  Vesta  "with  liquid  nectar"  (liquido 
nectare)  ;  thus  showing  the  connection  in  which 
the  rural  poet,  accustomed  to  the  preserved 
"  must-wines  "  of  his  native  Mantua,  familiar,  as 
his  Georgics  show,  with  the  writings  of  Cato, 
Columella,  Varro,  ever  associated  these  unin- 
toxicating  fruits  of  the  vine.  It  is  noteworthy 
that  it  is  on  the  African  coast,  at  Carthage,  the 
home  of  Tertullian  and  Augustine,  that  Virgil 
pictures  the  Trojan  Eneas,  the  future  ancestor 
of  the  Roman  patricians,  as  meeting  the  same 
pure  product ;  the  poet  (^neid  I.,  433)  using 
almost  the  very  words  of  his  Georgics  as  he 
sets  forth  the  delight  of  the  exile  as  he  beholds 
the  bees  gathering  "flowing  honies"  (liquentia 
mella),  then  distending  the  cells  "  with  sweet 
nectar "  (dulci  nectare).  That  editors  do  not 
put  their  own  thought  into  these  multitudinous 
allusions  of  Clement  is  seen  by  his  own  state- 
ment which  follows.  He  cites  Artorius  on 
"  Long  Life  ";   who  commends  as  a  beverage 


Arvisian  Wines  Aperient.  479^ 

'*  sweet  juices  of  the  grape  "  (chymous  edeis)  ; 
whose  nature  (alluded  to  pp.  404,  428),  is  set 
forth  by  Aristotle  and  Greek  medical  writers. 
In  his  note  touching  Ariusian  wines,  and  this 
connection  in  Clement,  Migne  cites  Athenaeus 
L.  I.,  c.  25  :  "  de  reliquis  vini  speciebus  lusius 
agit."  The  term  "  lusius  "  is  medieval,  derived 
from  both  the  Greek  and  Latin  verbs  "  luo,"  in 
the  sense  of  "  to  purge  ";  the  statement  being: 
"  among  other  kinds  of  wine  it  acts  as  more 
aperient." 

Returning  to  Christ's  making  and  using  wine, 
Clement  says  that  though  He  made  wine  of 
water  for  guests  at  a  wedding,  "  He  did  not  put 
them  in  the  way  (epistrepse)  to  become  intoxi- 
cated." Alluding  to  the  charge  that  Christ  was 
a  "wine-bibber"  (oinopotes),  Clement,  while 
contending  that  He  used  wine,  holds  that  He 
was  no  more  a  "  wine-bibber  "  than  that  He  was 
"  gluttonous."  He  asks :  "  How  (pos)  dost 
thou  suppose  the  Lord  drank  when  for  us  He 
became  man  ?  "  He  responds :  "  Was  it  shame- 
lessly as  we  ?  "  He  adds  :  "  Ouchi  asteios, 
ouchi  kosmios,  ouk  epilelogismenos  ? "  The 
derivation  of  these  three  adverbs,  and  Sophocles' 
explanation  in  his  Lexicon  of  the  Byzantine 
Greek,  quoting  this  passage  from  Clement,  leads 
to  this  legitimate  rendering:  "  Was  it  "hot  as  a 
citadel-sentinel,   as    a    State-officer,   as   a  man 


480  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

ruled  by  reason  ?  "  The  allusion  in  this  very 
connection  to  Aristotle's  view  of  "  temperance," 
and  to  Plato's  laws  as  to  wines  previously  cited 
by  him,  are  conclusive,  that  Clement  regarded 
those  laws  as  binding  on  Christians.  Alluding 
again  to  the  wine  of  the  Lord's  Supper,  Cle- 
ment represents  Christ  as  using  the  language : 
"  Touto  mou  esti  to  aima,  aima  tes  ampelou" — 
"  this  is  my  blood ;  blood  of  the  vine ";  and 
Migne,  in  a  note,  says:  "To  Clement  it  is  the 
same,  the  blood  of  Christ  and  the  blood  of  the 
vine."  Alluding  yet  again,  in  closing,  to  Aris- 
totle, to  Elpenor  (Iliad  I.,  589)  cast  out  of 
heaven  for  using  intoxicating  wine,  to  Amos  vi. 
6,  and  to  Noah's  fall,  Clement  uses  the  term, 
"ou  tetuphomenon  poton,"  a  drink  not  self-blind- 
ing, as  that  becoming  Christians ;  a  term  thus 
interpreted  by  Migne  :  "  Hoc  est,  vinum  fastum 
prae  se  ferens ";  that  is,  wine  advertising  its 
own  disgrace. 

TERTULLIAN,     WITNESS     AT     CARTHAGE,     OPENING 
THE    THIRD    CENTURY. 

Passing  from  Alexandria  to  Carthage,  Ter- 
tullian,  writing  a.d.  200  to  220,  almost  contem- 
porary with  Clement,  the  earliest  and  the  model 
Latin  father,  brings  out  two  aspects  of  the  Chris- 
tian Chtirch,  as  related  to  wine  in  his  age  and 
location.     In  his  "Apology"  he  recalls  the  vir- 


Roman  Virtue  as  to  Wine  Christiajt,    48 1 

tues  of  the  early  Romans,  lost  by  luxury ;  which 
virtues  it  was  the  mission  of  the  Christian  faith 
to  restore.  He  says  (c.  vi.)  :  "  As  to  women 
those  institutions  of  our  ancestors  (majorum) 
have  fallen  into  decay ;  .  .  .  .  when  women  ab- 
stained from  wine  under  such  a  rigid  rule  that  a 
matron  was  put  to  death  on  account  of  breaking 
the  seal  of  the  wine-cellar.  Under  Romulus, 
in  fact,  a  wife  was  slaughtered  with  impunity  by 
her  husband  Mecenius."  Tertullian  adds  that 
for  "  six  hundred  years  after  the  building  of  the 
city  this  law  had  been  observed  at  Rome  ";  and 
he  defends  the  Christian  faith  as  giving  the  only 
hope  for  a  return  to  the  primitive  abstinence. 
In  his  treatise  addressed  to  "  Wives  "  (ad  Uxor., 
L.  I.,  c.  8,  9),  Tertullian  dwells  on  Paul's  pic- 
ture (Phil.  iii.  19),  of  the  lustful,  whose  "god" 
is  appetite;  who  make  their  "shame"  their 
"  boast ";  whose  "  mind  "  never  rises  above  the 
material;  and  he  says  that  "in  the  woman 
wine-bibber"  (vinosa)  this  is  especially  unbe- 
coming. Migne,  annotating  on  Tertullian's  cita- 
tion of  Roman  law  under  the  Republic,  quotes 
Varro,  Pliny,  and  Valerius  Maximus ;  the  very 
writers  that  sought  to  meet  the  luxury  of  the 
Empire  by  describing  and  commending  unfer- 
mented  wine;  a  fact  which  must  interpret  Ter- 
tullian's allusion  to  the  wine  of  the  Lord's  Sup- 
per in  his  treatise  against  Marcion  ;  his  "  Apolo- 


482  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines, 

gy"  certainly  being  in  harmony  with  the  latter 
treatise.  To  meet  Marcion's  objection  against 
Christ's  appointment,  Tertullian  (adv.  Marcion, 
L.  iv.,  c.  40),  quotes  Gen.  xlix.  11  and  Isa. 
Ixiii,  I.  The  former  passage,  as  Christ  was  de- 
scended from  Judah,  he  says,  prefigured  the 
wine  of  the  Supper.  The  patriarch  by  the 
words,  "in  vino  stolam  suam,  et  in  sanguine 
uvae  amictum  suum,"  inspired  as  a  prophet  (ist 
Pet.  i.  10,  11),  the  spirit  of  Christ  speaking 
through  him,  is  seen  "  setting  forth  the  robe 
and  cloak  as  flesh,  and  the  wine  as  blood 
(stolam  et  amictum  carnem  demonstrans,  et 
vinum  sanguinem)."  Tertullian  adds:  "And 
so  he  has  now  consecrated  (consecravit)  his 
blood  in  wine  who  then  symbolized  (figuravit) 
wine  in  blood."  There  can  be  no  question,  all 
lights  converging  to  reveal  the  fact,  that  to  Ter- 
tullian "  the  fruit  of  the  vine  "  at  Christ's  Supper 
and  "  the  blood  of  the  grape  "  in  Jacob's  vision 
were  the  same ;  since  Tertullian  regards  Christ 
Himself  as  speaking  through  Jacob.  Com- 
menting then  on  Isa.  Ixiii.  i,  seeking  by  it  to 
meet  Marcion's  objection  that  Christ  appointed 
wine  for  the  Supper,  Tertullian  says :  "  You 
may  recognize  (recognas)  the  ancient  figure  of 
blood  in  wine,  ....  of  flesh  trampled  together 
and  wrung  (conculcatae  et  expressae)  by  the 
force  of  suffering  from  the  vat  of  the  twist-press 
(de  foro  torcularis.)  " 


Marcions  Objection  to  Wine  Met.      483 

ORIGEN,     THE     ALEXANDRIAN     WITNESS,     IN     THE 
THIRD    CENTURY. 

Origen  succeeded  Clement  at  Alexandria, 
A.D,  228  to  254,  in  meeting  Marcion  as  opposer 
of  the  Encratites,  conscientious  errorists  as  to 
Christ's  appointment  of  wine  for  the  Supper. 
His  statements  briefly  cited  (pp.  202,  203)  ap- 
pear direct  when  full  quotations  and  comments 
are  examined.  In  his  extended  Homily  on 
Jerem.  xiii.  12,  Origen  says  that,  to  a  right  un- 
derstanding of  the  prophet,  regard  must  be  had 
to  both  the  "  differences  (diaphoras)  of  wines 
and  of  skins  (askon)  ";  and  also  to  the  irrever- 
ent reply  against  God  of  "  the  kings,  priests, 
prophets,  and  inhabitants  of  Jerusalem  "  (v.  14), 
whom  Jeremiah  as  God's  inspired  herald  (ch.  i., 
vs.  7  to  10)  was  addressing;  and  he  quotes  at 
length,  especially  from  David's  Psalms,  using 
the  Greek  translation,  whose  numbering  the 
reader  must  correct  in  references.  As  to  wines 
he  makes,  first,  two  fundamental  divisions,  and 
then  a  third  subordinate.  There  is  an  injurious 
(mochtheros)  wine,  and  he  says:  "See  how 
(p5s)  from  the  Scripture  (GraphSs)  one  is  to 
understand  (labein)  the  differences  of  wines 
(diaphoras  ton  oinon)."  One  is  that  "of  the 
vine  of  Sodom"  (Deut.  xxxii.  32)  destructive  as 
in    Lot's    day;    the    other   is   "of  the  vine   of 


484  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines, 

Sorek."  The  word  "  Soreq,''  a  proper  name  in 
Judg.  xvi.  4,  a  special  term  for  a  choice  red 
grape  in  Isa.  v.  i  and  Jer.  ii.  21  as  the  modern 
Arabic  indicates,  cognate  with  Soreqah  ren- 
dered "choice  vine"  Gen.  xlix.  11,  indicates, 
as  Origen  shows  by  his  citations  and  his  reason- 
ing, an  unintoxicating  wine ;  for  he  cites  Psal. 
xxiii.  5,  Prov.  ix.  5,  Isa.  v.  i,  and  Psal.  Ixxviii.  47, 
as  explaining  his  meaning.  That  the  difference 
of  wines  produced  at  these  two  locations,  Sodom 
and  Sorek,  is  in  the  mode  of  preparing,  not  in 
the  climate  or  soil,  is  manifest  from  the  fact  that 
Sodom,  Eshcol,  and  Sorek  are  in  the  same  belt, 
running  from  east  to  west  across  the  territory 
of  Judah,  promised  by  Jacob;  a  fact  having  an 
important  bearing  on  what  follows  in  Origen's 
homily.  This  contrast  in  wines,  Origen  pro- 
ceeds, is  presented  by  David  (Psal.  xxiii.  5)  and 
Jeremiah  (xxv.  15)  ;  and  he  exclaims  :  "  If  thou 
wishest  to  see  what  the  righteous  drink,  heed 
the  counsel  of  wisdom  and  love  (Prov.  ix.  5  and 
Cantic.  v.  i),  '  Drink  of  the  wine  that  I  have 
mixed  (ekerase)  for  you.' "  Here  the  commen- 
tators on  the  verb  (kerannumi)  state :  "  From 
Homer  down,  it  is  used  mostly  of  diluting  the 
strong  syrup-like  wines  of  the  Greeks  and  Ro- 
mans, and  so  preparing  them  for  the  table. 
See  II.  iv.  260;  Odys.  iii.  332,  393  ;  v.  93  ;  xviii. 
423 ;  xxiv.  364." 


Three  Kinds  of  Wine  and  Oiled  Skins.    485 

Origen  continues :  "  See  the  Savior  (Sotgra) 
at  the  Passover  dehghting  (euphrainon)  His 
disciples  with  unmixed  (akratS),  saying :  Drink ; 
this  is  my  blood  !  Seest  thou  the  Gospel,  which 
is  the  cup  of  the  new  covenant  (kaings  diathe- 
kSs)  ?  "  Then  in  an  eloquent  appeal  he  adds  : 
"  I  see  two  cups  of  unmixed  ";  and  pictures  one 
in  the  right,  the  other  in  the  left  hand  of  God ; 
one  that  of  Jeremiah  xxv.  15,  and  of  David  in 
Psal.  Ixxv.  8 ;  the  other  that  of  Jeremiah  ii. 
21,  and  of  David  in  Psal.  cxvi.  13.  He  asks 
whether  they  will  take  the  cup  of  salvation  or 
the  cup  of  punishment.  Picturing  the  nature 
of  this  latter,  he  continues:  "Seest  thou  the 
cup  of  punishment  is  of  unmixed,  full  of  admix- 
ture (akratou  pleres  kerasmatos)  ?  "  There  is 
yet  another  cup,  he  proceeds:  "The  sem- 
blance of  punishment  (eidos  kolaseos)  ;  a  cup 
mixed  (kekerasmenon)  in  such  a  manner  that  it 
is  mingled  (kinasthai)  according  to  the  desert 
(axian)  of  the  useful  deed  (tes  chrestes  praxeos) 
mixed  up  with  injurious  deed  (anamemigmenes 
mochthera  praxei)."  He  adds  :  "  Understand 
me ;  abandoned  sinners  drink  of  the  unmixed 
of  punishment ";  believers  "  of  the  unmixed  of 
the  new  covenant."  To  explain,  returning  to 
the  distinction  of  skins,  he  says :  "  Therefore 
every  skin,  whether  good  or  bad,  shall  be  filled 
with  wine  of  its  own  quality ;  and,  according  to 


486  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

the  determined  purpose  (epitedeioteta)  of  the 
skin  wine  will  be  poured  into  it."  He  adds  that 
if  the  unmixed  wine  of  punishment  is  sought, 
"  Oil  (elaion)  is  not  poured  (balletai)  into  the 
skins,  nor  any  other  lubricating  material  (ugra 
hyle)." 

This  last  and  most  difficult  study  of  commen- 
tators has  received  light  from  varied  sources. 
Heinsius  states :  "  Jerome  regards  this  statement 
of  Origen  as  indicating  three  cups  :  the  pure- 
strong  (meracum)  for  the  impious  (impiis)  ;  the 
mixed  (mistum)  for  those  who  walk  unstead- 
ily (titubant)  in  the  way  of  virtue  and  advance 
with  uncertain  steps  ;  and  that  of  the  new  cov- 
enant for  saints  (novi  testamenti  Sanctis)."  That 
**  meracum  "  implies  strong  "  merum  "  as  ap- 
plied to  wine,  Cicero  and  Horace  indicate ;  the 
latter  applying  to  it  the  term  "  helleborum,"  or 
drugged ;  hellebore,  from  the  days  of  Hippoc- 
rates, being  prescribed  as  the  most  powerful 
anaesthetic  known  to  the  "  materia  medica."  As 
explanatory  of  "  the  cups  in  the  right  and  left 
hand,"  reference  is  made  to  Homer  (Iliad  I., 
595-6)  ;  who  pictures  Vulcan  as  "  pouring  out 
wine"  (oinochoeo)  to  the  gods,  in  token  of  a 
truce  in  their  disputes,  "  towards  the  right " 
(endexia) ;  the  "  wine "  thus  poured  being 
"  sweet  nectar "  (gluku  nektar)  ;  a  testimony 
most  manifest  that  in  the  earliest  Grecian  his- 


Nectar  used  for  Hmnan  Covenants.      487 

tory  a  "wine"  that  was  "  unintoxicating"  was 
in  common  use,  and  the  beverage  of  heroes  ;  a 
direct  illustration,  too,  of  the  wine  here  referred 
to  by  Origen.  To  illustrate  the  twofold  "  akra- 
tos,"  written  "  akretos "  by  Homer,  the  words 
of  Agamemnon,  uttered  when,  in  violation  of  the 
truce,  a  Trojan  bowman  shot  Achilles  in  the 
breast,  are  in  point;  Agamemnon  citing  the 
"  aima  te  arnon,  spondai  te  akreioi  kai  dexiai," 
or  the  treaties  ratified  by  blood  of  lambs,  and 
by  wine  unmixed,  and  presented  with  the  right 
hand.  This  sacred  truce,  as  he  says,  "  the 
Trojans  have  trampled,  which  we  have  kept"; 
and  as  this  truce  is  compared  by  Agamemnon 
(v.  160)  to  that  ratified  before  among  the  gods, 
the  "  unmixed "  must  have  been  the  same,  or 
"sweet  nectar."  The  opposite  "  akratos  "  is  il- 
lustrated from  Xenophon  (Anab.  IV.,  v.  27)  as 
"  strong  and  fiery  ";  the  added  ingredient  (ker- 
asma,  Psalm  Ixxv.  8)  is  the  "  kukeon,"  or 
concoction,  prescribed  by  Hippocrates  as  an* 
anaesthetic ;  and  that,  again,  is  explained  by  the 
"  kukeo,"  called  "  pharmakon,"  a  drug,  to  which 
Homer  alludes  (Odys.  x.  316),  and  which  he 
describes  as  mixed  by  Circe  (Odys.  x.  234-236)  ; 
which  contained  "  pea-green  honey "  (meli 
chloron)  which  Circe  "  stirred  (ekuka)  in 
Pramneian  wine ";  and  to  which  it  is  added : 
"  She    mixed    in    meal    (sitd)    baneful    drugs 


488  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

(pharmaka  lugra)."  On  the  use  of  oil  in  the 
preparation  of  skins,  whose  preparation  deter- 
mined the  quality  of  wine,  two  facts  are  to  be 
noted:  first,  that  grease  and  oil,  as  now  used, 
render  both  pliant  and  water-tight  the  harness 
and  shoes  of  laborers  ;  and  second,  that  the  use 
of  olive  oil  in  ancient  Egypt  (see  pp.  313,  326), 
among  the  Romans  (p.  Zll^^  i^  the  return  to  it 
by  modern  Italian  vintners  (p,  309),  and  in  the 
chemical  test  made  at  the  New  York  School  of 
Mines  (p.  345),  compels  the  recognition  of 
Oriofen's  allusion  to  it.  It  is  a  direct  statement 
that  the  wine  Christ  declared  to  be  the  emblem 
of  the  New  Testament,  or  the  Gospel  Cov- 
enant, "  the  fruit  of  the  vine  "  He  appointed  for 
the  Supper^  is  the  pure  juice  of  the  grape  thus 
preserved  in  the  land  of  Egypt  where  Origen 
wrote,  and  among  the  Romans  who  peopled 
Alexandria. 

Origen  concludes  with  an  appeal  significant 
In  our  day.  Referring  directly  to  the  "priests" 
named  (xiii.  14)  and  to  the  Levites  who  should 
return  from  the  captivity  (xxxiii.  22),  having  in 
view  Jeremiah's  extolling  of  the  Rechabites 
(xxxv.  I— 19)  and  his  appeal  to  the  king  of  Judah 
(xiii.  14  and  xxxv.  i)  through  their  example, 
appealing  also  to  Jeremiah's  statement  as  to  the 
hope  of  Judah  in  her  degeneracy  (Lam.  iv.  7), 
"her   Nazarites   were   purer   than  snow,   they 


Wine-Drinking  Presbyters  and  Deacons.   489 

were  whiter  than  milk,"  Origen  exclaims  that 
he, like  the  apostle  Paul  (i  Cor.  x.  11),  declares: 
"All  these  things  happened  unto  them  as 
types."  He  insists :  "  The  prophet,  the  apostle, 
has  written  through  us.  If,  therefore,  there  be 
any  one  among  these  priests  (I  mean  the 
presbyters),  if  there  be  any  of  you  Levites  (I 
mean  the  deacons)  who  stand  around  the 
people,  who  has  thus  sinned,  he  shall  receive 
the  cup  of  punishment  which  the  Lord  threatens 
through  the  prophet."  As  a  single  other  testi- 
mony to  the  general  teaching  of  Origen,  in  ac- 
cord with  Clement,  who  preceded  and  other 
fathers  who  succeeded  him,  on  Gen.  ix.  20,  he 
dwells  upon  the  inexperience  of  Noah,  indicated 
by  the  Greek  term  "  erxato,"  he  "  began  "  to  be 
a  husbandman ;  with  a  play  of  words  he  inti- 
mates that  it  was  "earthy"  (geinos)  wine  that 
made  Noah  "  naked "  (gymnos)  ;  and  he  ex- 
claims :  **  Such  is  the  fruit  of  the  tree  of  knowl- 
edge of  good  and  evil."  Here,  as  the  annota- 
tors  recognize,  Origen  draws  the  distinction  be- 
tween intoxicating,  "  earthy/' and  unintoxicat- 
ing  wine  ;  he  indicates  that  knowledge  of  the 
former  is  only  "  good,"  while  knowledge  of  the 
latter  is  "  evil";  and  he  regards  Noah  and  Adam, 
the  second  and  the  first  fathers  of  the  human 
race,  to  have  been  subjected,  alike,  to  the 
trial  of  forbidden  fruit  and  forbidden  products 
21* 


490  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

of  fruit,  as  contrasted  with  the  appointed  "fruit 
of  the  vine." 


CYPRIAN,    THE     CARTHAGINIAN     WITNESS,    IN    THE 
MIDDLE    OF    THE    THIRD    CENTURY. 

The  works  of  Cyprian  take  the  student  again 
to  Carthage,  a.d.  248  to  258,  in  the  very  age 
of  Origen.  In  his  preface  (c.  xiv.)  Migne  pre- 
mises that  in  his  allusions  to  wine  Cyprian  is 
meeting  the  objection  of  "  total  abstainers  who 
used  water  for  wine"  (aqua  pro  vino)  at  the 
Lord's  Supper;  and  he  adds:  (c.  xv.)  that 
Cyprian,  like  the  fathers  generally,  regarded 
Melchisedek  as  having  foreshadowed  the  wine 
of  the  Supper  (Gen.  xiv.  18).  Cyprian's  chief 
testimony  is  found  in  his  63d  epistle  ;  addressed : 
"  To  Caecilus  on  the  sacrament  of  the  Lord's 
cup."  He  writes :  "  Nothing  else  should  be 
done  by  us  than  what  the  Lord  before  has 
done  for  us ;  that  the  cup  which  is  offered  in 
commemoration  of  Him,  be  offered  mixed  with 
w^ine  (mixtus  vino).  For,  when  Christ  said:  '  I 
am  the  true  vine'  (John  xv.  i),  the  blood  of 
Christ  is  not  water  merely  (non  aqua  est  utique), 
but  wine."  In  a  note  Migne  quotes  the  words 
of  the  decree  of  the  Council  at  Carthage  cited 
by  Bingham  (see  p.  231),  as  follows:  "  Ut  in 
Sacramento  corporis  et  sanguinis   Domini  nihil 


Decree  of  Carthage  as  to  Wines.        49 1 

amplius  offeratur  quam  Dominus  tradidit;  hoc 
est  panis  et  vinum  aqua  mixtum  ";  that  "  in  the 
sacrament  of  the  body  and  blood  of  the  Lord 
nothing  more  should  be  offered  than  the  Lord 
appointed ;  that  is  bread  and  wine  mixed  with 
water."  Migne  quotes  several  corroborative 
authorities ;  among  which,  after  the  mass  took 
the  place  of  the  Lord's  Supper,  is  the  follow- 
ing: "  Constitutio  synodalis  Didaci  Escolani 
episcopi  Majoricensis  edita  anno  1659."  In 
this  document  the  bishop  states  of  the  cup  at 
the  mass:  "It  is  less  becomingly  (decenter) 
performed  when  red  wine  is  consecrated ;  .  .  .  . 
since  thus  the  neatness  (mundities)  of  the  altar 
can  scarcely  be  preserved.  Therefore  we  ex- 
hort all  presbyters  of  this  diocese,  that,  after 
this,  they  use  white  (albo)  wine  in  celebration 
of  masses  (missarum)."  Migne  adds  :  "  Pope 
Innocent  VIII.,  doubtless,  had  not  read  this 
passage  of  Cyprian  when  he  permitted  the  sacri- 
fice of  the  mass  to  be  celebrated  without  wine 
in  Norway";  the  Pope  citing  as  a  natural 
reason,  "  quod  ob  immensa  frigora  vinum  in  ea 
regione  importatum  acescat ";  "  because  on  ac- 
count of  the  excessive  cold  in  that  region  wine 
imported  grows  sour."  Several  citations  follow 
in  Migne ;  all  agreeing  that  both  wine  and 
water  should  be  used  at  the  Lord's  Supper. 
Cyprian  next  cites  at  length  the  cases  of  Noah 


492  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

and  Melchisedek  ;  as  do  his  predecessors.  On 
Solomon's  counsel  (Prov.  ix.  1-5)  he  says:  "id 
est,  calicem  Domini  aqua  et  vino  mixtum  ";  that 
is,  that  the  cup  of  the  Lord  is  mixed  with  water 
and  wine ;  and  as  explanatory  he  adds,  citing 
Gen.  xlix.  11:"  When  the  blood  of  the  grape 
is  mentioned  what  else  (quid  aliud)  than  the 
wine  of  the  cup  of  the  Lord's  blood  is  set  forth  ? 
The  treading  and  pressure  of  the  twist-press 
(torcularis)  is  called  into  requisition,  because  as 
it  is  impossible  to  have  wine  to  drink  unless  the 
grape  cluster  (botrus)  is  beforehand  trodden 
and  crushed,  some  would  not  be  able  to  drink 
the  blood  of  Christ  unless  He  had  beforehand 
been  trodden  and  crushed,"  Alluding  to  Christ's 
statement  that  He  would  drink  "new  wine" 
(novum  vinum),  he  says  it  can  be  obtained  even 
in  desert  regions.  Migne  here  adds  in  a  note, 
"  Wine  (vinum)  is  omitted  in  Matthew  (xxvi. 
29),  as  Jerome  shows  (Apud  Varronem  L.  V. 
de  Lat.  Ling.)."  Cyprian  continues :  "  How 
can  we  drink  of  the  product  (creatura)  of  the 
vine,  new  wine,  unless  we  offer  wine.'* "  thus  in- 
dicating that  he  meets  the  objection  of  those 
using  water  by  insisting  that  Christ  appointed 
the  fresh  product  of  the  vine  at  His  Supper. 
Alluding,  then,  to  Paul's  corresponding  view  (i 
Cor.  xi.  23-26),  and  citing  his  statement  (Gal. 
i.  6-9)  that  no  Gospel  appointment  should  be 


spiritual  Inebriation  not  Intoxication.     493 

changed,  he  exclaims  :  "  I  wonder  that  in  certain 
localities  water  is  offered  in  the  cup  of  the 
Lord  ";  thus  indicating  the  extent  of  this  con- 
scientious departure.  Yet  again,  to  indicate  the 
kind  of  wine  prepared  by  Providence  to  meet 
this  demand,  like  his  predecessors,  he  quotes 
David's  cup  (Psalm  xxiii.  5)  as  unintoxicating ; 
adding:  "  Calix  autem  qui  inebriat  utique  vino 
mixtus  est ";  but  the  cup  which  inebriates  surely 
is  mixed  with  wine.  Then,  presenting  the  con- 
trast between  "  ebrio  "  and  "inebrio"  (p.  150) 
when  the  two  words  are  thus  brought  into  op- 
position, he  adds  :  "  ebrietas  Dominici  calicis  et 
sanguinis  non  est  talis  qualis  est  ebrietas  vini 
saecularis  ";  "  but  the  exhilaration  of  the  cup  and 
blood  of  the  Lord  is  not  such  as  the  exhilara- 
tion of  the  worldly  (saecularis)  wine."  That  his 
use  of  "cup"  for  the  former,  and  "wine"  for 
the  latter  is  designed  is  apparent ;  since  the 
word  "  wine,"  as  Jerome  intimates,  is  not  used 
by  Christ,  and  since  also  Cyprian  appeals  to 
Psalm  XX.  5,  "we  will  rejoice  in  thy  salvation," 
in  which  no  mention  is  made  of  wine,  as  illus- 
trative of  his  meaning ;  saying  that  "  the  blood 
of  the  Lord  is  a  saving  cup."  He  adds,  more- 
over, that  "the  cup  of  the  Lord  is  the  best" 
(optimus),  and  refers  to  the  wine  Christ  made 
at  the  wedding  (John  ii.  10)  as  illustrative;  say- 
ing that  Christ  "  made  wine  of  water  "  to  indi- 


494  ^-^^  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

cate  to  the  Jews  that  His  Gospel  was  adapted 
to  all  nations  ;  an  idea  touching  the  wine  of  the 
Supper  that  had,  in  Cyprian's  mind,  a  broad 
application. 


ZENO,    THE    ITALIAN    WITNESS    OF    THE   THIRD 
CENTURY. 

The  record  of  Zeno,  next  succeeding,  a.d. 
252  to  260,  takes  us  to  Verona,  in  Northern 
Italy,  where  he  suffered  martyrdom  under 
Galienus.  His  works  extant  are  short  tracts ; 
several  of  which,  in  his  Second  Book,  relate  to 
the  administration  of  the  Lord's  Supper  to 
young  children.  In  B.  II.,  Tract  xxxii.,  Zeno 
uses  the  term  "lactantes,"  or  "milk-sucking," 
in  representing  the  elements  of  the  Lord's  Sup- 
per administered  to  children ;  on  which  the 
editor  cites  Jerome's  comment  on  Isa.  Iv.  i : 
"  Hoc  mos  et  typus  in  Occidentis  ecclesiis  hodie 
usque  servatur ;  ut  renatis  in  Christo  vinum 
lacque  tribuatur";  this  custom  and  symbol  is 
preserved  in  the  churches  of  the  West  even  to 
this  day ;  that  to  those  born  again  to  Christ 
wine  and  milk  is  given.  Again  (Tract  xxxviii.), 
Zeno  invites  "  neophytes,"  after  baptism,  "  to 
the  feast  (convivio)  in  which  the  sweetness  of 
our  secular  must  (musti)  ....  is  not  corrupted 
by  foetid  exhalations  of  wine  left  from  the  day 


The  Cup  of  the  Lord's  Supper  "Must'*  495 

before  (vini  pridiani)  ;  but  to  a  celestial  ban- 
quet, honorable  (honesto),  pure,  healthful,  and 
perpetual."  On  the  word  **  musti  "  Migne  says : 
"The  term  must  (vox  musti)  signifies  the  same 
Eucharist  which  the  same  receive  under  the 
form  of  wine  (sub  vini  specie)."  He  then  cites 
Melchisedek,  Abraham,  Jacob,  and  Joseph,  as 
using  the  same  "must"  in  their  rural  life;  and 
adds  that  the  home  fare  of  Jesus  was  the  same  ; 
while  John  was  fed  upon  "wild  honey."  Al- 
luding, then,  to  the  cup  of  the  Supper,  thus  de- 
clared to  have  been  sweet  must,  Zeno  cites 
Psal.  cxix.  103,  and  comments  thus  :  "  Our  God 
and  Lord,  Jesus  Christ  the  Son  of  God,  as  be- 
forehand He  had  fed  them  on  sweets  (dulcia) 
in  this  banquet,  says:  'How  sweet  (quam 
dulcia)  are  Thy  words  unto  me ' ";  on  which 
Migne  cites  the  Vatican  codex,  and  says  the 
words  of  Zeno  are  rendered  intelligible  by  the 
accordant  fact  that  Christ  "at  the  end  of  the 
feast  brought  out  sweet  confects  "  (sub  convivii 
finem  expungere  dulcia)  ;  the  reference  being 
to  John  14th  to  i6th  chapters.  The  word  "ex- 
pungere "  in  medieval  Latin  is  equivalent"  to 
"  conficere,"  whence  the  English  term  "  con- 
fects ";  while  these  conspiring  lights  indicate 
that  the  cup  of  the  Supper  is,  as  in  the 
words  of  Psal.  cxix.  103,  the  "gleukeon,"  or  the 
"  gleukos  "  of  Acts  ii.  13.    In  his  53d  tract,  "  de 


496  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

Paschale,"  or  of  the  Easter  festival,  Zeno  states 
what  Bingham  cites  without  giving  his  authority 
(see  p.  231).  His  words  are:  "panem  novum 
coeperint  manducare,  quos  amtumnale  quoque 
non  morabitur  mustum ;  quo  repleti,  inebria- 
tique,  fehciter  spiritus  semetsui  calore  ferve- 
bant  (Acts  ii.  13)";  "they  might  begin  to  eat 
new  bread,  whom  the  autumnal  must  also  will  not 
delay  ;  with  which  filled  and  exhilarated  they 
are  happily  fervid  with  heat  of  very  spirit." 
Zeno,  it  must  be  observed,  is  writing  in  the 
home  of  Cato  and  Columella,  and  where  the 
unfermented  wine  described  by  them  and  by 
Pliny  had  been  familiar  for  centuries.  The 
season  of  Easter,  like  the  Passover  in  Pales- 
tine, brought  in  the  new  fresh  wheat ;  while 
the  must  put  up  the  previous  autumn  has  not 
been  subjected  to  summer  heat,  and  is,  there- 
fore, specially  fresh.  Zeno  compares  it  and  its 
exhilaration  to  the  "  gleukos"  which  the  inspired 
at  Pentecost  were  charged  with  having  imbibed  ; 
a  preparation  of  grape-juice  now  admitted  even 
by  objectors  (see  p.  341)  to  have  been  unin- 
toxlcating.  The  word  "  inebrio,"  therefore, 
like  "methusko"  (see  pp.  122,  137,  149-15 1, 
etc.),  means  an  exhilaration  arising  from  spiritual 
as  well  as  from  physical  causes.  What  is  yet 
more  important,  Migne  gives  here  the  note 
above  cited,  "  This  is  the  Eucharist  given  under 


Roman  Uft/ermented  Wine  at  Carthage.   497 

the  special  form  (specie)  of  bread  to  neophytes  ; 
as  the  word  'must'  signifies  the  same  Eucharist 
which  they  receive  under  the  special  form 
(specie)  of  wine.''  Such  testimonies,  conspiring 
and  cumulative,  coming  from  the  entire  circuit 
of  the  Mediterranean,  forbid  doubt  that  unin- 
toxicating  "fruit  of  the  vine"  was  regarded  in 
the  early  Church  as  Christ's  appointment  for 
His  Supper. 


ARNOBIUS,     THE    CARTHAGINIAN    WITNESS,    OPEN- 
ING   THE    FOURTH    CENTURY. 

Returning  to  Carthage,  in  the  treatise  of 
Arnobius,  a  rhetorician,  at  first  opposed,  then 
won  to  the  Christian  faith,  writing  a,d.  300  to 
305  "against  the  Gentiles,"  new  testimonies 
are  met.  Appealing  to  the  Roman  degeneracy 
which  Christianity  alone  could  reform,  he  dwells 
(Contr.  Gent.  ii.  6']^  on  luxury  in  diet,  on  the 
departure  from  simple  oil  and  grape  syrup,  and 
on  indulgence  in  intoxicating  wine.  He  asks: 
"Matres  familias  vestrae  ....  potionibus 
abstinent  vini?"  Do  our  mothers  of  family 
abstain  from  potions  of  wine?  He  especially 
declares  wine-drinking  "  aversionem  ex  relig- 
ione  priorum,"  a  departure  from  the  religious 
integrity  of  their  predecessors.  Again  (iv.  16) 
referring  to  the  religious  rites  (officia  religiosa) 


498  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

of  Minerva,  Apollo,  and  Diana,  and  to  Plato 
in  his  Timaeus  as  to  Egyptian  deities,  Arnobius 
applies  a  term  to  the  wines  employed  which 
has  called  forth  exhaustive  criticism.  Arnobius 
says  that  it  was  the  custom,  "ex  pateris  aureis 
inferia  vina  defundi,"  that  inferia  wines  be 
poured  out  from  golden  goblets.  Again  (vii. 
30,  31),  Arnobius  exclaims:  "For,  what  has 
God  to  do  with  wine  ?  (Quid  est  enim  Deo  cum 
vino  ?) "  Repeating  the  question,  he  adds : 
"  What,  I  say,  has  God  to  do  with  wine,  the 
thing  next  to  venereal  indulgence  (venereis  re 
proxima)  ?  "  Dwelling  on  this,  Arnobius  makes 
this  appeal,  expanding  and  repeating  this 
phrase:  "  Mactus  hoc  vino  inferio  esto"  !  On 
the  word  "  mactus,"  Virgil's  celebrated  line  is 
cited  (^neid,  ix.  641),  "  Macte  nova  virtute 
puer ;  sic  itur  ad  astra."  "  Mactus  "  is  equiva- 
lent to  "  magis  auctus,"  and  the  line  is  rendered : 
"  Advance,  boy,  to  new  virtue ;  so  one  mounts 
to  the  stars."  The  annotator  cites  the  custom: 
"  They  cried  out  to  the  gods  in  the  sacrifices, 
*  Macte  hocce  vino  inferio  esto.'  "  On  the  word 
"  inferio  "  Cato  and  Varro  are  quoted ;  Varro 
applying  it  to  "  rain-water  "  as  pure  from  any 
foreign  ingredient ;  the  word  being  derived 
from  "  infero,"  to  bring  in  and  serve  something 
specially  prepared  and  set  apart ;  as  Virgil  uses 
it  (^neid,  iii.  66).     On  the  whole  connection 


"  hiferia  "  or  specially-prepared  Wines.     499 

Migne  giv^es  this  note :  "  On  inferio,  Trebatius 
says  that  the  word  is  added  for  this  cause 
(ea  causa)  and  is  mentioned  for  this  reason  also 
(eaque  ratione)  ;  that  not  any  wine  whatever 
(ne  vinum  omne  omnino),  which  is  stored  in 
cellars  and  in  lofts  (in  cellis  atque  apothecis), 
from  which  that  which  is  poured  is  prepared  at 
hand  (promptum  est),  may  at  once  become 
sacred  (esse  sacrum  incipiat),  and  be  hastily 
taken  (eripiatur)  from  human  uses.  Add  to  this, 
therefore,  that  by  this  term  that  only  will  be 
sacred  which  might  be  specially  brought  in 
(inferetur)  ;  neither  will  another  meet  religious 
obligation  (rehgione  obligabitur)."  The  amount 
of  research  which  editors  have  given  to  the 
elucidation  of  these  statements  of  the  early 
Christian  fathers  as  to  wines  appropriate  for  the 
Lord's  Supper,  certainly  justifies,  in  our  age 
and  land,  the  effort  to  reach  their  meaning. 

EUSEBIUS,    THE    CHURCH    HISTORIAN    UNDER   CON- 
STANTINE. 

The  testimony  of  Eusebius,  born  in  Palestine, 
master  of  all  the  history  of  the  Christian  Church 
in  all  the  early  ages,  writing,  a.d.  315  to  340,  to 
meet  the  demand  when  the  first  Christian  Em- 
peror made  full  instruction  in  Christian  morals 
a  demand  throughout  the  Roman  world,  have 


500  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

been  sufficiently  cited  (pp.  204,  206,  207,  454). 
Their  bearing  and  import  receives  new  light  and 
increased  emphasis  from  the  citations  of  editors 
on  the  works  of  the  earlier  fathers  already  re- 
ferred to.  No  strength  of  statement  can  exag- 
gerate, if  it  can  do  justice  to,  the  importance 
attached  by  the  historian,  both  of  the  Christian 
Church  and  of  the  Christian  Emperor,  in  his 
view  of  the  "  Preparation  for  the  Gospel," 
which  old  Roman  virtue  as  to  wines  especially 
gave. 

Somewhere  in  this  age  also  appeared  the  Latin 
poetic  harmony  of  the  Gospels,  incorporated 
by  Migne  with  the  works  of  the  Latin  fathers ; 
which  "  Evangelica  Historica,"  the  work  of 
Juvencus,  affords  accordant  testimonies  that 
"  musts  "  were  a  variety  of  wines,  and  that  they 
were  preserved  as  "  musts  "  in  new  "  anointed" 
skins.  The  words  of  Christ,  Mat.  ix.  1 7,  Mark 
ii.  22,  Luke  v.  t^^j,  38,  are  thus  versified: 

"  Aut  utribus  calidum  tritis  committere  mustum, 
Queis  ruptis,  totum  sequitur  disperdere  vinum  ? 
Sed  rudibus,  rectum  est,  utribus  spumantia  musta  " ; 

i.  e.,  "or  do  they  commit  warm  must  to  worn- 
out  skins,  which  being  ruptured,  it  results  that 
they  lose  all  the  wine  ?  But  it  is  wise  to  put 
foaming  musts  in  raw  skins."  Annotators  direct 
attention  to  three  special  terms  here.     "  Uter," 


Oiled  Wine-Skins  in  Christian  History.    501 

as  its  derivation  and  usage  indicate,  is  distinct 
from  "  pellis  ";  the  latter  referring  to  skins  cut 
and  made  into  leather  by  tanning ;  the  latter  to 
skins  stripped  from  the  animal  whole  and  pre- 
pared by  thorough  rubbing  of  the  interior  with 
oil.  and  used  as  bottles.  The  word  "  calidum" 
indicates  that  the  "must"  referred  to  was  fresh 
from  the  vat;  the  writer  regarding  the  "  oinos 
neos "  of  Matthew,  Mark,  and  Luke  as  fresh 
"must."  The  word  "  rudis,"  opposed  to 
"  tritus,"  contains  a  double  idea ;  not  only  the 
strength  from  newness,  but  the  air-tight  nature 
of  the  skins  being  alluded  to.  This  is  set  forth 
by  Virgil  (Geor.  ii.  384)  ;  the  country  youth  at 
their  festivals,  after  emptying  at  their  banquet 
the  skins  of  preserved  must,  blowing  up  those 
same  "unctos  utres"  which  the  oil  had  made 
air-tight,  and  using  them  as  foot-balls.  On  the 
wine  used  by  Christ,  especially  at  the  Lord's 
Supper  (Evang.  Hist.,  B.  iv.,  1.  454),  two  notes 
are  given.  The  meaning  of  "  condere,"  whence 
the  adjective  "  conditum  "  applied  to  "  fruit  of 
the  vine,"  is  thus  explained:  "  Coftd^re;  sic 
vinum  conservant  fortia  vasa";  to  seal  up;  so 
strong  flasks  preserve  wine.  Again,  attention 
is  called  to  the  fact  that  this  early  Latin  histori- 
cal poet  styles  the  wine  of  the  Supper  "  merum," 
corresponding  to  the  "  akraton  "  of  the  earlier 
Greek  fathers ;   "  merum  "  having  the  two  mean- 


502  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

ings  heretofore  observed  as  belonging  to  the 
generic  term  "wine"  in  all  languages. 

LACTANTIUS   AND    ATHANASIUS,    UNDER    CONSTAN- 

TINE. 

A  new  field  of  testimony  is  opened  by 
Lactantius,  writing  at  Constantinople,  under 
Constantine,  a.d.  320  to  330,  styled  "  the 
Christian  Cicero";  the  tutor  of  Crispus,  the 
emperor's  eldest  son.  Like  Cicero  an  eclectic 
in  philosophy,  and  a  profound  student  of  nat- 
ural theology  in  its  bearings  on  law  and  juris- 
prudence, in  his  "  Divine  Institutions"  (B.  vi.,  c. 
I,  De  vero  cultu),  alluding  to  the  fact  that  the 
profoundest  Grecian  philosophers,  even  Anax- 
agoras,  taught  "  the  worship  of  the  heaven 
(coeli)  and  of  the  sun,"  while  the  Christian  re- 
ligion enjoined  worship  only  of  "the  Maker 
of  heaven  and  of  the  sun,"  he  says:  "  But  men 
who  neglect  judgment  while  stained  (inquinati) 
with  vices  and  crimes,  if  they  only  drenched  the 
altar-fires  (focus)  with  a  profusion  of  fragrant 
and  old  wine  (odoraticae  veteris  vini)  revel  in 
luxurious  debauch."  As  opposed  to  this  he 
speaks  of  the  Christian  Supper  as  "  a  new  obla- 
tion (novam  oblationem)."  In  a  note  (in  the 
appendix),  "  novam  "  is  stated  to  be  opposed  to 
"  veteris,"  applied  to  the  wine  still  under  Con- 
stantine offered  to  pagan  deities ;   this  "  nova 


The  Arian  Controversy  and  Wines.      503 

oblatio "  being  "purum  sacrificium,"  a  pure 
sacrifice.  The  editor  quotes  passages  above 
cited  from  Tertullian  and  Cyprian,  and  others 
to  be  alluded  to  from  Chrysostom  and  Cyril, 
showing  that  unintoxicating  wine  was  made  and 
used  by  Christ. 

The  testimony  of  Athanasius,  the  great  cham- 
pion of  the  Divine  nature  of  Christ  under  Gon- 
stantine,  framer  of  the  creed,  so  much  more  ex- 
plicit than  the  Nicene,  which  bears  his  name, 
teacher  and  writer  at  Alexandria,  a.d.  335  to 
■^T^,  sufficiently  quoted,  p.  209,  gives  a  clearer 
light  when  set  among  kindred  lights  shining  all 
around  the  Mediterranean  at  his  day.  Dis- 
putes as  to  creeds,  as  Paul  and  Peter  at  An- 
tioch,  Athanasius  at  Nice,  Calvin  and  Servetus 
at  Geneva,  Polyander,  Arminius,  Grotius,  and 
Socinus  at  Leyden — all  earnest  contenders  for 
vital  doctrines  of  the  Christian  faith — tend  to 
extreme  statements;  when  nevertheless  the  es- 
sential truth  for  which  they  contend  involves 
the  earthly  and  heavenly  welfare  of  the  human 
race.  Like  other  great  leaders  at  the  crisis  when 
Christianity  became  popular  under  Constantine 
and  men  who  knew  nothing  of  Christ's  ex- 
cellence pressed  for  worldly  motives  into  the 
Christian  Church,  Athanasius  contended  strong- 
ly for  the  purity  of  Christ  as  to  intoxicants ; 
and  that  not  as  an  ascetic,  thinking  to  redeem 


504  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

men  by  self-enforced  abstinence,  but  to  hold 
them  by  an  inward  Divine  grace  to  the  perfect 
law  of  temperance.  In  the  interpreting  of  his 
words  special  regard  must  be  had  to  editions  re- 
lied on.  That  of  Paris  in  1 726,  that  of  Cologne 
in  1786,  and  especially  that  of  Migne  in  1857, 
indicate  the  guidance  of  French  experts  on  the 
subject  of  wines.  The  allusions  of  Athanasius 
to  "  wines  "  in  their  relation  to  Christ  as  maker, 
as  partaker,  and  as  instituter  of  the  Supper  are 
varied  but  generally  brief.  In  his  Oration 
against  the  Gentiles,  or  his  defence  of  Christian 
moral  and  religious  doctrine  against  Grecian 
and  Roman  objections,  Paul's  epistle  to  the  Ro- 
mans, written  at  Corinth,  is  brought  constantly 
to  mind ;  since  human  nature  had  not  essen- 
tially changed  ;  while  the  lure  to  accept  Chris- 
tianity without  its  spirit  was  ensnaring.  At 
chapter  24,  as  marked  by  Migne  (Orat.  Cont. 
Gent.  24),  Athanasius  writes  :  "  The  people  of 
India  worship  Bacchus  (Dionyson),  symbol- 
lically  calling  him  wine  (oinon)."  There  fol- 
lows this  statement,  differently  interpreted  : 
"kai  touton  tois  allois  spendousin  heteroi"; 
properly  rendered :  "  and  this  (wine)  other 
(peoples)  pour  out  as  a  drink-offering  to  other 
(deities)."  Athanasius  continues  :  "  Other  (na- 
tions) and  especially  the  Egyptians,  recognize 
water  and  fountains  (krenas)  as  deities ;  indeed 


Wine  at  the  Stipper  Unintoxicating.      505 

as  to  all  these  (observances)  the  Egyptians  have 
been  especially  prominent.  And  yet,  these  very 
Egyptians,  who  worship  these  (waters)  wash  ofif 
(aponiptontai)  the  impurities  (rypous)  of  other 
things,  and  even  their  own,  with  the  waters." 
The  connection  indicates  that  Athanasius  has 
both  Christ's  ordinances,  and  especially  a  con- 
nection between  the  two  as  respects  the  purity 
of  the  elements  employed,  in  his  mind.  In  his 
treatise  against  the  Arians  (Contr.  Arian.  Co- 
logne edit,  Vol.  II.,  p.  122),  arguing  that  the 
Divine  nature  in  Christ  is  indicated  by  the 
purity  of  the  elements  he  appointed  at  the  Sup- 
per, Athanasius  represents  that  Christ  "  set  forth 
his  own  most  holy  (panhagion)  body,  and  wine 
exhilarating  (euphrainonta)  the  heart  (kardian, 
Lat.  mentem)  and  producing  freedom  from  in- 
toxication (nepsin)  in  the  animal  nature  (psyche, 
Lat.  animo)  of  each  one ;  as  if  having  mingled 
(kerasas)  his  own  blood  in  the  cup."  The  uni- 
versal classic  usage  of  "  nepsis "  and  its  root 
nepho"  compels  the  rendering  "freedom  from 
intoxication  ";  this  is  the  rendering  of  "  nepho  " 
in  I  St  Thess.  v.  8,  as  the  connection  indicates, 
which  the  Christian  Fathers  generally  give  ;  and 
a  contradiction  must  be  supposed  if  Athanasius 
has  not  in  mind  the  custom  of  his  age,  seen 
everywhere,  in  using  unintoxicating  wine  at  the 
Supper.     In  his  History  of  Mclchiscdck  (Co- 


5o6  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

logne  edit.,  Vol.  II.,  p.  9),  Athanasius  repre- 
sents Melchisedek  as  giving  to  Abraham  "poteri- 
on  akraton,"  an  unmixed  cup ;  which  the  editor 
renders  "vinum  meracum,"  pure  wine.  Cer- 
tainly Athanasius  had  a  reason  for  inserting  the 
qualifying  term ;  and  the  usage  of  the  Greek 
and  Roman  classic  writers,  as  also  of  the  Greek 
and  Latin  Fathers,  is  in  accord  as  to  the  meaning 
of  "akratos"  and  of  "merum"  and  "meracus." 
In  his  questions  on  the  Interpretation  of  Par- 
ables, Nos.  71  and  72,  the  interpretation  of 
Gen.  xlix.  10,  11  is  like  to  that  of  the  other 
Fathers.  Of  the  "  blood  of  grapes  "  Athanasius 
says :  "  This  blood  was  indeed  wine  ;  since  the 
Lord  called  also  that  mystic  wine  his  blood. 
This,  again,  that  his  eyes  are  made  glad  (charo- 
-poioi)  from  wine,  signifies  the  joy  which  fol- 
lowed his  passion."  It  is  noteworthy  that  the 
editor,  assured  from  the  connection  that  it  is  not 
excitement  from  an  intoxicating  element  in  the 
wine,  renders  this  expression  "  pulchriores  vino," 
more  beautiful  than  wine.  Certainly  no  man 
could  have  chosen  language  more  definite  than 
Athanasius. 

HILARIUS     AND     EPIPHANIUS,     IN      THE     CLOSE     OF 
THE    FOURTH    CENTURY. 

In  the  same  generation,  Hilarius,  a.d.  350  to 
356,  at  Pictavium,  in  Southern  France,  near  the 


Wine  Rejoicing.  507 

former  field  of  Irenseus,  contrasts  the  wine  of 
the  Supper  and  wine  used  as  a  beverage,  in 
statements  accordant  with  those  of  the  many- 
fathers  giving  testimony  as  to  wines  in  his  age. 
In  his  Tract,  lix.,  vs.  3-6,  dwelHng  on  the  cup 
of  wrath  (Isa.  H.  17)  and  the  cup  of  Christ's 
blessing  (Isa.  Iv.  i),  he  says:  "  In  vino,  etenim, 
secundum  Apostolum  (Eph.  v.  18)  lascivia  est. 
Et  sicut  est  vinum  cor  hominis  laetificans,  ita  et 
vinum  est  hominis  compungens ";  "  For,  in 
wine,  according  to  the  Apostle,  is  lasciviousness. 
And  as  it  is  wine  which  makes  joyful  the  heart 
of  man,  so  it  is  wine  which  causes  compunction 
to  man."  Hilary  sees,  as  Solomon  teaches, 
the  natural  association  of  the  vices  of  wine- 
drinking  and  of  licentiousness. 

In  the  close  of  this  century,  a.d.  367  to  402, 
in  the  Isle  of  Cyprus,  where  Paul  early  preached 
and  won  the  Roman  deputy  from  the  subtle 
corruption  which  Juvenal  compared  to  "wine- 
lees  "  (faecis),  debasing  to  women  as  well  as  men 
(Sat.  iii.  and  vi.),  while  before  Paul's  visit  Hor- 
ace characterized  its  agents  as  '*  quack-medicine 
dealers"  (pharmakopolae,  Sat.  I.,  ii.  i), — at  this 
centre  and  in  this  age  Epiphanius  wrote  against 
"  heretics  '*  or  seceders.  As  stated  in  the  former 
citation,  Epiphanius  seeks  to  meet  the  valid 
objection  of  those  who  were  opposed  to  wine 
at  the  Supper  because  it  might  be  intoxicating, 


5o8  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wiites. 

by  showing'  that  it  was  not  intoxicating  wine 
Christ  prescribed.  He  quotes  at  length  Psalm 
xxiii.,  from  the  Greek  translation,  whence  they 
argued  that  David  drank  only  water  in  the 
mountains  of  Judea,  though  it  had  among  its 
valleys  Eshcol  and  Sorec.  He  reviews  their 
argument  that  wine  caused  Noah's  fall,  Lot's 
incest,  and  Israel's  worship  of  the  golden  calf  at 
Sinai,  as  well  as  the  evils  pictured  by  Solomon, 
Prov.  xxiii.  29,  30.  He  says  that  Christ  for- 
bade "surfeiting"  as  well  as  "drunkenness," 
Luke  xxi.  36,  and  insists  that  it  was  wine  un- 
objectionable which  Christ,  as  David  in  the 
desert,  drank  and  appointed  for  the  Supper. 
This  argument  of  Epiphanius,  when  studied  in 
the  light  of  the  Roman  and  Greek  authorities, 
as  well  as  of  the  Christian  fathers  who  preceded 
him,  is  clear  and  convincing. 


AMBROSE     OF     MILAN,     IN     THE     CLOSE     OF     THE 
FOURTH    CENTURY. 

The  great  light  of  this  age,  from  a.d.  370  to 
397,  Ambrose  of  Milan,  Italy,  who  established  a 
form  of  Sabbath  service  precisely  like  that  of 
modern  evangelical  churches,  and  which  prevails 
to  this  day  in  the  church  reared  to  his  memory, — 
Ambrose  is  both  full  and  explicit  in  his  state- 


Epicurus  Teaching  the  Christian  Law.   509 

ments  as  to  unintoxicating  wine.  He  dwells  often 
(Hexam.  iii.  17,  de  Virg.  8,  Noah  and  the  Ark) 
on  the  fact  that  the  Creator  provided  only  the 
fresh  fruits  for  man ;  that  Noah  was  allowed 
"  to  invent  wine,"  as  Solomon  intimates  (Eccl. 
vii.  29),  as  a  "  test "  of  his  integrity ;  and  that 
his  inexperience,  intimated  in  the  expression,  he 
"began"  to  be  a  husbandman,  led  to  his  fall. 
As  illustrative  of  approved  wine,  he  alludes 
to  (Noah  c.  29)  the  "  tirosh "  (see  p.  417) 
blessed  by  Isaac ;  and  he  cites  David's  shep- 
herd's cup  and  his  "  table"  among  the  hills  of 
Judea  (Psal.  xxiii.  i,  5).  In  his  Epistles  (Ixiii. 
c.  19)  he  cites  Eph.  v.  18  as  giving  the  Chris- 
tian law  as  to  wines,  and  teaching  abstinence 
from  intoxicating  wine ;  and  he  explains  his 
teaching  by  this  historic  fact :  "  Even  Epi- 
curus, the  defender  of  indulgence,  himself  used 
grape-juice  only  (succo  solo)  or  water,  with 
bread."  He  quotes  (c.  27)  i  Tim.  v.  23,  as  im- 
plying that  wine  as  a  beverage  is  disapproved 
by  Paul ;  since  Timothy  abstained  from  it  en- 
tirely, and  is  only  advised  to  take  "  a  litde," 
and  as  "  a  medicine."  Alluding  again  to  Noah's 
fall  and  its  lesson  (c.  28),  he  urges  that  the  con- 
strstined  abstinence  of  Israel  in  the  desert,  and 
the  divinely  appointed  abstinence  of  Elijah,  of 
Daniel,  and  of  John,  was  the  secret  of  their 
superior  wisdom,  integrity,  and  usefulness.    On 


5IO  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

the  sacraments  (iv.  19),  he  characterizes  "the 
fruit  of  the  vine,"  appointed  by  the  Lord  at  His 
Supper,  as  **  wine  and  water  in  the  cup  "  (vinum 
et  aqua  in  caHcem).  He  dwells  on  the  cup  of 
Melchisedek,  the  type  of  Christ,  as  prefiguring- 
the  Supper  (Gen.  xiv.  18)  ;  and  asks  :  "What 
(quid)  was  put  into  the  cup  ?    Wine.    And  what 

else  (aliud)  ?     Water But  you   ask,    '  In 

what  manner  (quo  modo)  did  Melchisedek  offer 
bread  and  wine  }  What  meant  the  admixture 
of  water  ?  ' "  Presenting,  again  (v.  i),  under  the 
figure  of  Moses  striking  the  rock,  the  idea  com- 
mon to  the  fathers  that  the  "blood  and  water" 
that  flowed  from  Jesus*  heart  were,  the  one  aton- 
ing, the  other  cleansing  (i  John  i.  7  and  v.  6, 
and  Rev.  i.  5,  v.  9,  and  vii.  14),  he  adds: 
"  Therefore  the  priest  touches  it  (tangit),  the 
water  overflows  (redundat)  in  the  cup  ";  and  he 
cites  again  David's  cup  (Psal.  xxiii.  5),  as  illus- 
trative. The  custom  still  preserved  in  the  Ori- 
ental churches  (see  p.  233)  of  simply  touching 
the  bread  to  the  diluted  wine  is  here  manifestly 
alluded  to,  as  it  relates  to  the  Lord's  Supper, 
while  the  beverage  commended  is  the  cup  over- 
flowing with  water. 


Roman  Virtue  Perfected  by  Christ.      511 


BASIL  OF  ASIA,  CHRYSOSTOM  OF  CONSTANTINOPLE, 
AND  CYRIL  OF  JERUSALEM,  CLOSING  THE  FOURTH 
CENTURY. 

Basil,  in  Asia  Minor,  during  the  same  age, 
A.D.  370  to  379,  bears  like  testimony.  His 
declaration  that  Christian  ministers,  like  Gre- 
cian and  Roman  rulers,  should  abstain  from 
intoxicating  wine,  cited  pp.  211  and  231,  stand 
out  more  in  relief  amid  such  an  array  of  accord- 
ant teachings.  He  is  also  associated  with  those 
who  make  clear  the  nature  of  the  wine  appointed 
by  Christ  for  His  Supper. 

Chrysostom,  the  "golden-mouthed,"  who, 
A.D.  381  to  407,  at  Constantinople,  thrilled  the 
imperial  court  with  his  earnest  Gospel-preach- 
ing, follows  Lactantius  at  Constantine's  chosen 
centre,  where  the  Eastern  and  Western  churches 
might  meet.  In  several  of  his  Homilies  (as  xxvil 
13),  Chrysostom  refers  to  the  Roman  virtue  as 
to  abstinence  from  intoxicating  wines  ;  using  ex- 
pressions like  this  :  "  How  disgusting  is  woman 
reeking  with  wine,"  showing  by  the  connection 
that  he  would,  by  citing  woman,  impress  his 
own  and  every  thoughtful  man's  conviction  as 
to  any  one,  man  or  woman,  whose  breath  be- 
trays the  sensual  appetite  which  wine-fumes  be- 
speak.    Alluding  to  the  cup  Christ  appointed 


512  The  Divine  Law  as  to  JVines. 

for  the  Supper,  it  must  be  carefully  observed, 
his  effort  is  to  show  that  it  was  not  subject  to 
this  objection.  In  his  82d  Homily  or  Exposi- 
tory discourse  on  Matthew's  Gospel  (on  Matt, 
xxvi.  29),  he  dwells  upon  the  special  terms  used 
by  Christ ;  and  alluding  to  Paul's  inspired  state- 
ment to  the  most  cultured  of  Greeks  (i  Cor.  xi. 
26),  that  this  pure  emblem  was  to  "  show  forth 
the  Lord's  death  till  He  comes,"  employing  his 
usual  and  frequent  mode  of  references  to  the 
group  of  strangely  banded  errorists  of  his  day, 
he  says  :  "  Knowing  that  those  about  (hoi  peri) 
Marcion  and  .Valentine  and  Manes  were  to 
sprout  up  (phuesthai)  denying  the  appointment 
(arnoumenoi  ten  oikonomian),  Christ  said :  '  I 
will  drink  no  more  of  the  fruit  of  this  vine  (ek 
tou  gennematos  tes  ampelou  tautes  ')."  Dwell- 
ing upon  and  repeating,  he  concludes  his  argu- 
ment opposing  the  extended  use  of  water  only, 
by  the  remark:  "  Qf  the  fruit,  he  says,  of  the 
vine.  Now  the  vine  produces  wine,  not  water 
(oinon,  ouch  hydor)."  Here  three  points  are 
to  be  observed :  First,  the  three  men  named, 
starting  from  three  opposite  principles,  each 
professing  a  specially  pure  morality,  all  ended 
alike,  as  modern  mystics  do,  in  unbridled  sensu- 
ality. Manes,  adopting  the  Persian  idea  that 
the  good  and  evil  principle  in  nature  are  in  bal- 
anced conflict,  became  a  gross  materialist,  with 


Materialistic  Schools  Opposing  Christ,    513 

all  the  resulting  tendencies.  Valentine,  begin- 
ning with  the  Egyptian  idea  of  an  ethereal,  un- 
fleshly  nature  in  Christ,  alluded  to  by  John  as 
already  rife  in  his  day  (i  John  iv.  3),  developed 
a  tendency  which,  as  Irenaeus  states,  made  his 
followers  to  become  abandoned  in  vice  and 
crime.  Marcion,  as  Epiphanius  states,  after 
early  profession  of  the  Christian  faith,  was  ex- 
cluded from  the  church  of  which  his  father  was 
pastor,  for  youthful  seduction.  When,  now, 
"  those  about "  this  trio,  their  followers  two 
centuries  after  the  death  of  their  leaders,  were 
agreed  like  the  Herodians  and  Imperialists,  the 
Sadducees  and  Pharisees,  in  seeking  to  defame 
the  purity,  and  then  to  destroy  the  reign  of  the 
spotless  Son  of  God,  no  wonder  that  Chry- 
sostom,  like  the  Gospel  heralds  in  modern  times 
(see  p.  8),  was  roused  to  defend  Him  who  was, 
indeed,  made  "  in  all  points  "  like  His  brethren, 
and  yet  was  "holy,  harmless,  undefiled,  and 
separate  from  sinners ";  as  Stuart,  the  mem- 
orable leader,  in  directing  scholarship  to  the 
study  of  Bible  wines  comments  on  the  word: 
**  Separate^  i.  e.,  removed  from  all  that  could 
contaminate  or  render  impure."  Second,  Chry- 
sostom,  by  the  inserted  word  "of  this  wine," 
shows  that  he  regards  Christ  as  referring  to 
Himself  as  the  spiritual  vine  (John  xv.  i),  and 
that  he  defends  the  "  fruit  of  the  vine  "  as  an 


514  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

article  pure  in  naturelike  the  being  whose  blood 
it  symbolized.  Third,  by  the  expression,  "  The 
vine  produces  wine,  not  water,"  he  by  no  means 
hints,  in  opposition  to  all  his  arguments,  that 
the  vine  produces  that  intoxicating  beverage 
which  no  creature  of  God,  save  depraved  man, 
will  drink,  much  less  designedly  "  invent,"  as 
Solomon  and  Pliny  agree  (see  p.  .144). 

The  voice  next  heard,  from  Jerusalem,  that  of 
Cyril,  A.D.  381  to  386,  needs  no  restatement, 
since  the  two  main  points  urged  have  been 
recognized  by  scholars  of  differing  view  since 
the  statement  of  Cyril's  view  (p.  212)  appeared. 
Geikie,  in  his  life  of  Christ,  makes  the  very 
statement  of  Cyril  as  to  the  wine  made  by 
Christ  for  the  wedding  (John  ii.  9) :  "  Wine  is 
water  in  vines."  The  "  gleukos  "  claimed  even 
by  Alford  as  intoxicating,  is  now  by  Horace 
Bumstead  admitted,  as  Cyril  stated,  to  have 
been  unintoxicating.  Yet  more  :  the  wondrous 
advance  of  scientific  criticism  as  well  as  of  popu- 
lar sentiment,  the  triumph  of  Christ's  truth  as 
well  as  of  His  grace,  witnessed  within  the  last 
ten  years  in  every  Christian  Church  and  nation, 
makes  the  voice  of  Cyril,  heard  from  the  very 
city  where  Jesus  taught  by  word  and  example 
as  to  the  wine  He  approved,  to  have  new  em- 
phasis. 


The  Lord's  Cup  Healthful,  5 1 5 


JEROME,     THE     COMPREHENSIVE     BIBLE     SCHOLAR, 
OPENING    THE    FIFTH    CENTURY. 

Coming  to  Jerome,  a  Roman  but  not  a  Ro- 
manist, living  thirty  years  of  his  studious  hfe, 
from  A.D.  372  to  420,  at  the  birthplace  of  David 
and  of  David's  greater  son,  that  he  might  learn 
and  embody  for  all  ages  faithful  comments  on 
every  part  of  that  book  which  from  beginning 
to  end  is  "The  Testimony  of  Jesus"  (Rev.  xix. 
10),  little  need  be  added  to  the  full  statement 
given,  pp.  213  to  217.  The  use  of  Jerome  by 
Mohammed,  who  so  distinctly  describes  the  law 
of  unfermented  wines  (see  pp.  218,  219,  427, 
428),  is  illustrated  by  the  citations  made  from 
Jerome,  just  traced,  by  editors  of  the  writings 
of  the  earlier  fathers.  Reviewing  the  statements 
in  Jerome's  commentaries,  their  number  and 
clearness  receives  added  light  from  th€  survey 
just  made. 

Jerome's  comment  on  Psalm  civ.  15,  reveals 
a  double  truth  as  to  wine :  that  it  is,  as  observed, 
p.  105,  "  unhealthful "  when  intoxicating,  while 
that  appointed  for  the  Lord's  Supper  is  "health- 
ful." Jerome  represents  Christ  as  here  "prof- 
fering the  mystery  (mysterium)  of  the  heaven^ly 
bread  and  of  the  healthful  (salutaris)  cup,  by 
which  the  church  is  refreshed  ";  the  word  "  salu- 


5i6  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

tans"  uniting-  the  literal  meaning  of  "health- 
ful "  with  the  spiritual  signification  of  "  saving." 
Jerome's  commentators  refer  to  his  statements 
on  Psalm  xxiii.  5  and  xxxvi.  8  as  illustrating  his 
meaning.  His  rendering  of  the  former  passage 
(Psal.  xxiii.  5)  is:  "  Et  calix  mens  inebrians 
quam  praeclarus  est !  " — "  and  my  inebriating 
cup,  how  exceeding  clear  it  is  !  "  Here  the  word 
inebriating,  as  in  the  Syriac  version,  is  not  meant 
to  indicate  that  the  cup  was  intoxicating,  but 
the  reverse,  for  the  transparent  clearness  of  the 
wine  here  emphasized  (see  pp.  345,  355)  re- 
veals Jerome's  as  well  as  David's  design  in  the 
words  chosen.  Hence  Jerome  adds:  "  Cu/>,  that 
is  the  word  of  God ;  inebriating,  because 
through  preaching,  a  man  is  pierced  (compun- 
gitur)  in  mind,  when  it  divides  (separat)  the 
man  ";  the  allusion  being  to  Heb.  iv.  12.  Jerome 
adds  :    "  Then  it  inebriates  him   when  it  does 

these  things Thou  inebriatest  me  by  the 

mystic  cup  so  that  I  give  up  to  oblivion  all  the 
delights  of  former  life."  Nothing  but  the  spirit 
which  Peter  condemned  at  the  Pentecost  could 
pervert  here  either  David's  or  Jerome's  mean- 
ing. In  like  manner,  on  the  latter  passage 
(Psal.  xxxvi.  8),  Jerome  writes:  "The  sons  of 
Christ  are  inebriated  (inebriantur)  by  the  oily 
fatness  (pinguetudine)  of  the  grace  of  the  Holy 
Spirit."    He  adds:   "  Vel,  inebriantur,  ut,  oblitis 


The  Inebriation  of  the  Lord's  Cup.      517 

flagittiis,  virtutibus  copulentur  ";  or,  "  they  are 
inebriated,  so  that,  their  vices  wrapped  as  in  oil- 
cloth, they  may  be  girded  with  virtues."  These 
graphic  and  sustained  figures  of  Jerome,  like 
those  of  Columella,  seem  by  forecaste  to  fore- 
stal  the  perversions  already  growing  in  the  Ro- 
man Church  when  Jerome  wrote.  This  very 
term  "  inebriate  "  meets  the  testimonies  of  mod- 
ern chemical  and  philological  science  in  support 
of  the  spotless  purity  of  Christ's  character  and 
of  His  requirements.  In  farther  elucidation  of 
his  meaning,  in  the  word  "  inebriate  "  Jerome 
alludes  to  the  "  water-fountain"  in  the  following 
verse  ;  any  material  cause  of  exhilaration  being 
emphatically  denied  by  the  figures  used. 

The  statement  of  Jerome  on  Isa.  Iv.  i, 
alluded  to  by  Migne  on  Clement,  and  partially 
quoted  on  Zeno,  is  thus  introduced.  Citing  the 
"  fruit  of  the  vine  "  used  by  Christ  at  the  Supper 
as  prefigured  by  Isaiah,  Jerome  says :  "  quod 
vinum  miscuit  et  sapientia  in  cratere  suo,"  which 
wine,  also,  wisdom  mixes  in  her  cup  ;  the  word 
**  mixes  "  being  suggestive.  Jerome  adds  :  "So 
that  we  may  buy  (emamus)  not  wine  only  but 
also  milk  (lac),  which  signifies  the  innocence  of 
litde  children  ";  when  follows  the  statement  of 
Jerome  as  to  the  "custom  and  symbol"  cited 
by  Migne.  Following  his  definition  of  "  tirosh," 
Hos.  ii.  9,  Jerome  has  a  like  comment  upon  the 


5 1 8  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines, 

"grapes"  mentioned  Hosea  ix.  ii,  stating  that 
Israel,  entering  Canaan,  planted  vines  as  Noah, 
"  but  they  drank  the  wine  which  He  (Christ) 
promised  that  He  would  drink  new  with  His 
apostles  in  the  kingdom  of  the  Father ";  and 
Jerome  adds  :  "  This  is  the  vine  of  Sorec,  whose 
wine  we  daily  drink  in  mysteries."  There  can 
be  no  question  that  it  was  the  rich,  pure  sac- 
charine juice  of  the  specially  ripened  grape, 
already  illustrated  as  that  of  Sorec,  which  was 
used  in  the  days  of  Jerome  as  that  appointed 
by  Christ.  On  Amos  ix.  14,  15,  Jerome  uses 
again  the  same  language  as  on  Hos.  ix.  11;  he 
declares  that  the  wine  Israel  will  drink  on  their 
return  from  captivity  will  be  the  same  fresh 
'•  fruit  of  the  vine "  which  Christ  promises  to 
drink  "  new  "  with  his  disciples,  and  compares 
this  to  "  red  must."  On  Hab.  ii.  5,  Jerome 
says :  "  As  wine  deceives  him  drinking  it,  so 
will  be  the  proud  man."  Uniting  all  Jerome's 
comments  with  the  previous  lights  thrown  upon 
his  statements,  the  impartial  seeker  for  truth  as 
to  Bible  wines  can  not  be  misled. 

In  his  Epistles,  in  addition  to  statements  cited 
from  the  2 2d,  others  give  important  testimony. 
In  his  46th  Epistle  Jerome  cites,  as  do  earlier 
fathers,  the  fact  that  Melchisedek  in  type  (typo) 
of  Christ  presented  pure  wine  to  Abraham ; 
saying  :  "  he  dedicated  (dedecavit)  the  Christian 


The  Consecrated  Wine  after  Noah's  Fall.   519 

mystery  in  the  blood  and  body  of  Christ."  In 
his  5 2d  Epistle  he  says:  "The  apostle  con- 
demns wine-drinking  (vinolentos)  priests ;  as 
the  ancient  law  commanded  that  they  who 
served  at  the  altar  (Lev.  x.)  should  drink  neither 
wine  nor  strong  drink  ";  he  comments  at  length 
on  various  kinds  of  Roman  and  barbarian  in- 
toxicating liquors  as  included  under  these  two 
classes  of  forbidden  beverages ;  and  indicates 
that  Christ  and  Timothy  were  examples  of  this 
law.  Again  in  his  looth  Epistle  he  cites  Judg. 
xiii.  7,  14  as  God's  law,  and  Amos.  ii.  11,  12 
as  the  sin  of  Israel  in  corrupting  the  youth 
who  would  keep  that  Divine  law ;  and  then 
cites  Daniel  as  blest  in  keeping  it.  Yet  again 
(adv.  Jovin.  i.  18),  he  speaks  of  "wine  conse- 
crated (dedicatum),  after  the  flood,"  implying 
that  only  the  kind  that  was  suitable  for  conse- 
cration should  be  drunk ;  and  he  quotes  Rom. 
xiv.  21,  as  the  Apostle's  rule  for  Christians. 

AUGUSTINE,    THE    MASTER-THEOLOGIAN,    EARLY 
IN    THE    FIFTH    CENTURY. 

Next  after  Jerome,  writing  from  Carthage 
and  often  exchanging  letters  with  his  fellow- 
scholar,  Augustine,  from  a.d.  387  to  430,  gives 
the  final  and  most  important  testimony  as  to 
wines   used   by   Christians    in    his   day.     Like 


520  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

Clement,  Augustine  must  be  read  with  the 
comments  of  experts ;  and  while  German  and 
English  editions  are  often  of  value,  the  com- 
ments of  Migne,  familiar  with  Roman  and 
French  specialist  authorities  on  wines,  are  most 
valuable.  Citing  Rom.  xiv.  1-3,  Augustine 
says :  "  Of  the  first  fruits  of  wine  (de  primitiis 
vini)  the  Gentiles  poured  libations  to  their  im- 
ages (simulacris) ;  and  some  of  them  made 
sacrifices  on  the  very  wine-presses  (in  ipsis  tor- 
cularibus)."  These  statements  show  at  the  outset 
Augustine's  recognition  of  Numa's  law  (see  pp. 
143,  388),  as  the  "jus  gentium,"  or  "common 
law,"  cited  from  Cicero  to  Justinian  by  Roman 
jurists.  Applying  this  principle  of  "the  first 
fruits  of  wine  "  to  the  law  of  Christ,  Augustine 
says,  in  arguing  against  the  Manichaeans,  or 
disciples  of  Manes  (Haer.  46)  :  "They  will  not 
drink  wine ;  saying  that  its  fell  poison  (fel)  is 
the  principle  of  darkness  (principium  tenebra- 
rum)  ;  while,  however,  they  eat  grapes.  Neither 
do  they  drink  any  must,  even  the  freshest  (re- 
centissimi)."  These  statements  indicate  three 
facts :  first,  that  total  abstinence,  extending  to 
this  extreme,  maintained  its  sway  over  conscien- 
tious Christians,  as  well  as  errorists,  through  all 
the  early  Christian  ages ;  second,  that  because  of 
the  "  poison  "  in  fermented  wines,  fresh  "  must  " 
was  prepared  and  used  as  a  beverage ;  third, 


Reply  to  Manichaans  as  to  Wine.       5  2 1 

that  Augustine  could  defend  Christ's  appoint- 
ment as  to  wines  at  the  Supper  only  on  the 
early  Roman  law  of  using  "the  first  fruits  of 
the  vine."  Against  Faustinus,  a  Manichaean, 
Augustine  uses  language  which  has  misled  crit- 
ics, who,  from  unacquaintance  with  Roman 
wines,  can  not  reconcile  his  apparently  contra- 
dictory statements ;  which,  however,  are  seen  to 
be  perfectly  in  harmony  when  the  Roman  dis- 
tinction between  fermented  and  intoxicating 
wines,  and  wines  unfermented  and  unintoxicat- 
ing,  has  been  made  familiar.  On  Gen.  xhx.  10,  1 1 
(contra  Faust,  xii.  42),  Augustine  makes  the 
"  vine "  to  represent  God's  people ;  they  are 
His  because  they  have  repented  (Matt.  iii.  2)  ; 
this  upper  garment  (stola)  is  the  robe,  or  char- 
acter of  His  people,  whom  He  purifies  from 
spot  as  by  dyes,  Eph.  v.  27  and  Isa.  i.  18;  to 
which  Augustine  adds  the  statement  oft  mis- 
construed :  "  He  himself  is  the  cluster  (botrus) 
which  hung  on  the  wood  (ligno),  Num.  xiii. 
23,  24.  Moreover,  see  what  he  adds :  he 
washed  his  undergarment  (amictum)  in  the 
blood  of  the  grape  (sanguine  uvae)  ;  his  eyes 
glisten  (fulgere)  from  wine ;  and  his  teeth  are 
white  with  milk."  On  the  former  clause  he 
makes  this  comment:  "to  whom  it  is  given, 
(sancta  quaedam  ebrietate  alienatse  mentis  ab 
infra  labentibus   temporalibus  seternum  lucem 


522  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines, 

sapienti  contueri)  by  a  certain  sacred  inebriation 
of  a  mind  turned  away  from  things  below,  fail- 
ing, temporal,  to  gaze  upon  light  eternal  for  the 
wise."  Nothing  but  modern  materializing  of 
the  spiritual  truth  of  the  Old  Testament,  seen 
so  clearly  by  early  Christians,  could  prompt  the 
suggestion  that  there  is  recognized  here  by 
Augustine  a  corporeal  intoxication  from  "  the 
blood  of  the  grape  ";  universally  recognized  by 
early  commentators,  brought  together  by  Poole, 
to  be  the  fresh  juice  of  the  grape.  To  make 
more  manifest  his  meaning,  Augustine  quotes 
2  Cor.  V.  12,  13;  stating  that  Paul  declares  he 
was  really  "sober,"  not  unduly  excited. 

Again,  he  urges  (xvi.  31),  that,  though  John 
was  an  abstainer,  yet  Christ  drank  wine,  other- 
wise He  would  not  have  been  called  a  "  wine- 
bibber"  (vinarius).  Again  (xx.  13),  replying 
to  the  charge  that  Christians  may  be  supposed 
to  worship  Ceres  and  Bacchus  (Cererem  et  Li- 
berum),  because  they  used  bread  and  wine  at 
the  Lord's  Supper,  he  argues  that  the  charge 
would  be  as  valid,  that  the  Jews  worship  Saturn 
because  their  Sabbath  comes  on  Saturday  (diem 
Saturni).  Meeting  then  the  charge  that  "to 
taste  wine  is  sacrilege,  not  religion,"  he  says  : 
"In  the  grape  (uva)  they  acknowledge  (agnos- 
cunt)  their  God  ;  in  the  cup  (cupa)  they  are 
unwilling   to ;    as    if,    somehow,    trodden    and 


Wine  Specially  Prepared  for  the  Supper.    523 

corked  (calcatus  et  inclusus),  he  stumbled  them." 
In  these  words  there  is  a  manifest  allusion  to 
the  mode  of  preparing  must  (see  pp.  2>n-1^^> 
and  to  prophecies  of  Christ  (as  Isa.  Ixiii.  3,  and 
Lam.  i.  15).  He  continues:  "But  our  bread 
and  cup,  not  of  any  kind  whatever  (non  qui- 
libet),  as  if  bound  after  the  manner  of  Christ 
with  thorns  and  withes  (in  spicis  et  in  sarmen- 
tis)  as  they  weakly  allege  (desipiunt),  but  by 
a  certain  consecration  is  made  a  sacred  rite 
(mystica)  to  us."  Here  the  figure  of  Christ's 
blood  flowing  from  the  pricking  of  the  thorns 
and  the  agony  of  His  soul  is  compared  to  the 
blood  of  the  grape,  strained  out  by  the  twist 
press.  Yet  more,  the  phrase,  "  not  wine  of  any 
kind,"  and  the  use  of  the  word  "mystica,"  as 
commentators  indicate,  shows  that  Augustine 
has  in  mind  the  "  mystica  vitis "  of  Tibullus, 
the  "  mysticum  vinum  "  of  Pliny,  and  especially 
its  use  by  Virgil  in  his  Georgics ;  in  which 
(as  i.  344,  etc),  the  rustic  beverage  and  com- 
mon offering  of  "  milk,  honey,  and  must,"  is 
alluded  to.  Again  (contr.  Petil.  ii.  47),  deny- 
ing the  calumny  that  the  wine  used  at  the 
Lord's  Supper  is  inebriating  (inebrians),  he  ex- 
claims, after  quoting  entire  Psalm  23d,  "  Me- 
mento ergo  Sacramentis  Dei  nihil  obesse  mores 
malorum  hominum  ";  remember,  therefore,  that 
to  the  Sacraments  of  God  the  customs  of  evil 


524  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

men  are  in  nothing  prejudicial.  Again  (contr. 
Jul.  ii.)  he  declares  that  the  cup  at  the  Lord's 
table  is  "what  a  little  child  may  drink,  (quem  bibat 
parvulus)."  The  natural  inference  as  to  the  char- 
acter of  this  wine  "  which  a  little  child  may  drink," 
is  confirmed  by  an  argument  of  Augustine  against 
the  Pelagians  (contr.  Jul.  Pelag.  i.),  who  denied 
that  little  children  have  a  sinful  nature  needing 
the  Atonement,  of  which  the  Lord's  Supper  is 
the  symbol.  Meeting  this  objection,  Augustine 
cites  "The  opinion"  (sententiam)  of  Innocen- 
tius  styled  "  Papa,"  or  Pope,  by  Augustine,  that 
"  little  children  should  partake  of  the  flesh  and 
blood  of  the  Son  of  Man."  Augustine  then 
exclaims  :  "  If  thou  wilt  not  hear  Innocent  the 
blest  (beatum),  wilt  thou  not  hear  Christ?"  an 
allusion  which  implies  a  recognition,  that  "  the 
fruit  of  the  vine  "  used  by  Christ,  which  "  a  lit- 
tle child  "  might  partake,  was  the  simple  grape- 
juice  fed  to  children  according  to  Virgil's  fre- 
quent pictures. 

Augustine's  comments  on  Psalms  xxiii.  5, 
xxxvi.  8,  civ.  15,  and  cxvi.  13,  which  have 
specially  misled  commentators  unacquainted 
with  facts  as  to  ancient  and  modern  wines,  at 
once  exalt  the  influence  of  Divine  Spiritual 
regeneration,  and  confirm  the  testimony  of  the 
succession  of  Christian  Fathers  that  unintoxicat- 
ing  wine  was  used  in  the  early  Church  at  the 


The  Wines  of  David.  525 

Lord's  Supper.  Augustine's  rendering  at  Psalm 
xxiii.  5  is :  "  poculum  tuum  inebrians,  quam 
praeclarum  est":  thy  inebriating  goblet  how 
exceeding  clear  it  is  !  The  term  "  inebriating" 
is  here  used  by  Augustine,  as  by  Jerome,  as  a 
denial  by  contrast  of  the  physical  influence  of 
the  cup  ;  for  he  adds,  "  oblivionem  praestans 
priorum  vanarum  delectationum  ":  causing  the 
forgetting  of  former  vain  delights ;  a  fact  seen 
in  men  like  Gough,  who  overcome  the  taste  for 
intoxicants  ;  which  result,  as  all  reformed  inebri- 
ates state,  is  only  accomplished  by  abstinence 
at  the  Lord's  Supper  from  intoxicating  wines. 
The  term  "  poculum,"  contrasted  by  Augustine 
and  Jerome  with  "  calix,"  indicates  Augustine's 
recognition  of  social  drinking,  as  distinct  from 
the  religious  partaking  of  the  cup.  On  Psalm 
xxxvi.  8  Augustine's  rendering  is  :  "  inebriantur 
ab  ubertate  domus  tuae";  they  are  inebriated 
by  the  abundance  of  thy  house.  To  show  his 
meaning  given  to  the  term  "  inebrio,"  he  ex- 
claims :  "  We  know  not  how  much  is  here 
promised";  and  cites  i  Cor.  xiii.  12  as  illustra- 
tive. He  proceeds  :  "  Here  is  an  enigma  !  As 
men  having  drunk  wine  immoderately  lose  their 
mind,  so,  because  that  unspeakable  joy  has  been 
received,  the  human  mind  as  it  were  perishes, 
and  is  made  Divine.  Whence  also  in  another 
Psalm   we  read   '  thy   inebriating  cup.'      With 


526  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

this  cup  the  martyrs  were  inebriated ;  and  so 
were  unconscious  of  their  suflferings."  He  fur- 
ther alludes,  as  illustrative,  to  Psalm  cxvi.  13  ; 
and  makes  the  term  "  inebrians,"  which  is  really 
the  commentator's  insertion,  to  be  explained  by 
ihe  term  "salutaris,"  healthful  or  saving.  On 
Psalm  civ.  15  Augustine  is  yet  more  explicit, 
and  is  fuller  than  Jerome.  He  says  :  "  Nemo  se 
ad  ebrietatem  paret.  Imo  se  omnis  homo  ad  eb- 
rietatem  paret  ?  "  The  term  "  pareo,"  indicating 
obedience  to  a  command,  requires  the  render- 
ing :  "  No  one  is  required  to  subject  himself  to 
inebriation."  He  adds,  since  the  Manichsean, 
asserting  the  contrary,  is  to  be  met :  "  Indeed  is 
every  man  required  to  subject  himself  to  inebria- 
tion ? "  To  make  clear  his  meaning,  Augustine 
again  alludes  to  Psalm  xxiii.  5  ;  where,  as  Poole 
indicates,  the  Syriac  version  read  by  Jerome  and 
the  Ethiopic  by  Augustine,  followed  by  the 
Arabic,  have  the  inserted  term  "inebriating"; 
and,  comparing  these  various  allusions  in  the 
Psalms  quoted,  he  explains  "  inebrians "  by 
"  exuberans."  He  adds  :  "  We  are  inebriated  ; 
but,  behold,  whence  ?  If  the  exceeding  clear 
(praeclarus)  cup  of  the  Lord  inebriates,  that 
inebriation  will  be  seen  in  good  works ;  it  will 
be  seen  in  your  sacred  love  of  justice.  It  will 
be  seen,  indeed,  really,  in  the  alienation  (aliena- 
tione)  of  your  mind ;  but  from  earthly  things 


Augustine s  Sermons  Against  Wine.     527 

to  heaven."  In  these  words  of  David,  thus  in- 
terpreted by  Jerome,  Augustine,  and  all  the 
evangelical  among  the  early  Christians,  nothing 
but  the  ruling  of  materialistic  rationalism,  so 
pervasive  in  German  interpreters,  against  which 
Stuart  on  this  very  subject,  as  on  others,  warned 
American  Bible  students — nothing  but  the  mod- 
ern prevalence  of  a  habit  condemned  by  Luther 
and  of  the  absence  of  the  spirit  which  animated 
that  reformer,  could  have  led  to  the  misinterpre- 
tation of  the  Hebrew  and  Greek  Scriptures  and 
of  the  interpreters  that  lived  amid  their  experi- 
ences. That  habit  Bismarck  has  observed  as 
the  source  of  Germany's  political  danger. 

In  his  sermons  Augustine  is  more  explicit. 
In  his  4th  sermon  he  alludes  to  the  "  tirosh " 
blessed  by  Isaac  as  akin  to  the  fresh  products, 
"  a  tritico  et  vino,"  from  fresh  wheat  and  wine, 
used  at  the  Passover  and  by  Christ.  In  his  9th 
sermon,  after  a  like  allusion,  he  asks :  "  Dost 
thou  know  (nosti)  ....  what  (quid)  thou 
mayest  eat  (manduces),  what  thou  mayest 
drink  ?  indeed,  whom  (quem)  thou  eatest  and 
whom  thou  drinkest?"  In  his  153d  sermon,  on 
"  Lusting,"  of  the  wine-bibber,  who  boasts  how 
much  he  can  drink,  Augustine  says :  "  So  much 
the  more  debased  is  he  as  he  is  unconquered  by 
the  cup."  In  his  207th  sermon,  he  states  :  "  You 
miy  see  some,  in  place  of  the  common  wine, 


528  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

seek  out  uncommon  liquors ;  and  by  the  ex- 
pressed juice  of  other  fruit  to  compensate  for 
what  they  deny  to  themselves  from  the  vine  by 
what  is  most  pleasing  to  the  palate";  thus  in- 
dicating the  variety  which  permitted  choice  of 
beverages.  In  his  210th  sermon,  he  says: 
"  There  are,  also,  those  who  do  not  drink  wine  "; 
but  drink  "  the  expressed  juice  of  other  fruit, 
....  not  for  the  sake  of  health,  but  for  indul- 
gence"; thus  indicating  how  plain  was  the  pulpit 
teaching  of  Augustine's  day  on  wine-drinking. 
He  adds :  "  It  is  more  becoming  (honestius) 
....  that  the  common  and  moderately-used 
wine"  be  employed.  In  his  227th  sermon,  pre- 
senting again  the  bread  and  wine  to  be  used  for 
the  Supper,  he  indicates  that  it  is  "  fresh  wheat 
and  water  in  the  vine ";  and  referring  to  the 
same  again,  in  his  229th,  he  uses  the  pleasing 
simile,  that  as  the  fresh  bread  is  made  of  many 
kernels  of  wheat  and  the  wine  of  many  grapes 
mingled  into  one,  so  the  communicants  come 
to  partake  of  one  spiritual  nature.  There  the 
allusion  seems  to  be  to  the  still  continued  cus- 
tom on  the  African  coast,  of  grinding  wheat 
fresh  for  the  bread  of  each  meal.  Finally,  in 
his  372d  sermon,  Augustine  says:  "The  multi- 
tude of  nations  received  in  the  Lord's  table 
(mensa  dominica)  not  cheap  banquets  and  ig- 
noble drinks  (ignobiles  potus),  but  those  of  the 


Augustine  and  the  Council  of  Carthage.    529 

shepherd  himself  (ipsius  pastoris)  ";  both  David 
and  Christ  coming  before  the  mind  of  Augus- 
tine, as  before  earlier  fathers,  in  this  statement. 
As  the  text  of  the  Council  of  Carthage,  at 
which  Augustine  was  present,  is  quoted  by 
Migne  as  a  comment  on  Cyprian,  so  in  the  sup- 
plement of  his,  as  of  the  Venetian  edition  of 
1729,  is  found  this  among  a  list  of  "  Ecclesiasti- 
cal Dogmas  "  illustrative  of  Augustine's  works  : 
"In  Eucharistia  non  debet  pura  aqua  offeri 
.  .  .  sed  vinum  cum  aqua";  in  the  eucharist 
simple  water  ought  not  to  be  offered,  .... 
but  wine  with  water.  For  this  canon  two  rea- 
sons are  given :  first,  because  Christ  used  the 
words  "  fruit  of  the  vine  "  (gemine  vitis),  and 
because  it  is  the  custom  "after  supper"  (post 
t^oenam)  "  that  wine  mixed  with  water  be 
served";  second,  because  the  "blood  and  wa- 
ter" which  flowed  from  Christ's  heart  symbol- 
ized the  elements  appointed  in  the  cup. 

THEODORET,  THE   GREEK  WITNESS,  IN   THE    FIFTH 
CENTURY. 

Theodoret,  bishop  at  Cyrus,  in  the  island  of 
Eubcea,  on  the  coast  of  Attica,  from  a.d.  420  to 
457,  adds  testimony  specially  interesting,  since 
he  wrote  in  the  land  where  the  language  of  the 
New  Testament  was  the  people's  tongue  ;  and, 
23 


530  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

also,  since  he  is  one  of  the  clearest  and  most 
Scriptural  of  the  Greek  Fathers.  On  the  preg- 
nant statement,  Gen.  xlix.  10-12,  Theodoret 
recognizes,  as  all  the  early  Christians,  that  "the 
vine  "  represents  the  people  of  God  at  large ; 
citing  as  illustrative,  Deut.  xxxii.  32,  Psal.  Ixxix. 
8,  Isa.  V.  I,  Jerem.  ii.  21.  He  quotes  Gal.  iii. 
27,  to  indicate  that  the  toga  and  tunic  are  the 
righteousness  of  those  who  "  put  on  Christ." 
He  adds:  "Then  also  the  patriarch  predicted 
the  suffering  (pathos)  of  Christ ;  his  body  is 
called  the  robe  (stole),  and  his  blood  is  styled 

wine We  hear  John  the  evangelist  say : 

*  there  came  forth  blood  and  water ';  therefore  he 
washed  his  garment  in  the  blood  of  the  grape." 
This  allusion  shows  that  Theodoret  has  in 
mind  the  "  wine  mixed  with  water,"  as  also  the 
fresh  "must"  declared  by  the  earlier  fathers  to 
have  been  used  at  the  Supper.  On  Lev.  x.  9, 
Theodoret  says  that  as  Moses  commanded  the 
priests  to  abstain  from  wine,  so  "  the  apostle 
teaches"  (1  Tim.  iii.  2,  11  ;  Tit.  ii.  2),  that  the 
bishop  must  be  "  nephalios,"  free  from  wine; 
Theodoret's  statement  confirming  the  fact  that 
this  term  is  used  by  Paul  in  the  same  sense  as 
in  the  writings  of  the  Greek  poets  (^sch. 
Eumen.,  107;  Soph.  Oed.  Col.,  481),  also  in 
Plutarch  (ii.  132),  familiar  to  the  scholarly  Greek 
bishop.     On  i  Tim.  v.  23  he  urges  that  in  con- 


Domestic  Use  of  Unfermented  Wine.     531 

sistency  with  Paul's  previous  injunction  (i  Tim. 
iii.  2)  it  was  "  only  a  little,"  and  that  the  me- 
dicinal wine  Paul  commended.  Theodoret 
adds :  "  It  is  becoming  (prosekei)  that  the 
priest  be  perfect  (teleion)."  On  the  phrase 
"straight  in  heart"  (euthesi)  (Psal.  Ixxiii.  i), 
he  represents  the  churches  as  "  lenous,"  or 
wine-vats ;  for  "  unto  them  the  spiritual  vineyard 
(ampelon)  brings  forth  its  domestic  (oikeion) 
fruit,"  plainly  referring  to  the  fresh  unfermented 
wine  as  that  which,  in  itself  and  in  its  spiritual 
likeness,  befits  the  Christian  Church.  This  is 
made  clear  by  Theodoret's  manifest  allusion  to 
the  use  of  "  euthus  "  in  the  Old  and  New  Testa^ 
ments,  as  in  2  Pet.  ii.  15,  where  the  allusion  is  to 
the  effect  of  intoxicating  wine  at  heathen  feasts, 
to  which  both  Peter  and  Paul  refer.  Peter  re- 
fers directly  to  Num.  xxv.  2  ;  as  his  mention  of 
the  luxury  and  lust  of  Sodom  (v.  716),  of  "riot" 
at  "  feasts"  (v.  13)  indicate  ;  akin  to  Paul's  men- 
tion of  the  "cup  of  demons"  (i  Cor.  x.  21); 
inebriation  causing  a  crooked  as  opposed  to  a 
straight  path,  as  indicated  by  Moses  (Deut. 
xxxii.  5,  14,  2,Z)^  ^"^  ^^so  by  Paul  (Heb.  xii.  13, 
16,  and  xiii.  9).  In  his  epistle  to  Cyrus  (Epist. 
xiii.),  Theodoret  writes :  "  I  have  heard  of  the 
Isle  of  Lesbos  and  its  wine";  and  he  expresses 
his  desire  that  he  partake  only  of  that  which  pro- 
motes   "  health "    (hygeian),    and    makes    men 


532  The  Divine  Laiv  as  to  Wines. 

"long-lived"  (polychronious).  This  reference 
of  Theodoret  to  the  Lesbian  wine  accords  with 
Horace's  allusion  (p.  399)  as  "  innocens ";  his 
allusions  here,  as  elsewhere,  indicating-  the  ex- 
istence in  his  day  of  unintoxicating  wines. 


RECENT      CRITICISMS      ON      HEBREW      INTERPRETA- 
TION. 

The  interests  of  truth,  touching  the  integrity 
of  the  inspired  Scriptures,  the  purity  of  their 
Author,  man's  divine  Redeemer,  the  safety  of 
thousands  now  entering  the  Christian  Church, 
and  the  rescue  of  a  generation  enticed  to  the 
drinking  of  light  beer  and  wine  by  the  interpre- 
tations of  Bible  scholars  ignorant  of  the  "  divine 
law  as  to  wines,"  compels  a  statement  which 
would  otherwise  have  been  withheld.  When, 
seven  years  ago,  an  able  writer  in  the  Examin- 
er, guided  as  was  afterward  stated  by  one  of 
the  most  eminent  Hebrew  scholars,  denied  the 
statement  that  any  Hebrew  lexicographer  gave 
to  "tirosh"  the  meaning  "unfermented  wine," 
it  was  becoming  in  the  writer  simply  to  refer  to 
Fuerst.  The  fact  is  of  special  importance  that 
all  the  trusted  Hebrew  lexicographers  are  Ger- 
man ;  that  as  Robinson's  list  of  authorities  indi- 
cates, all  the  eminent  explorers  in  Bible  lands  up 
to  the  time  he  wrote  had  been  naturally  from 


German  Lexicography  Progressive.     533 

the  seaboard  and  commercial  countries  of  Eu- 
rope, not  from  inland  Germany ;  that  hence,  as 
Cuvier,  Guizot,  Hamilton,  Stuart,  Robinson, 
Agassiz,  McCosh,  and  a  long  line  of  French, 
English,  and  American  scholars  in  varied  de- 
partments have  noted,  the  German  mind  is 
specially  speculative ;  that  hence-  the  progress 
of  practical  science,  in  Biblical  criticism  especi- 
ally, has  effected  greater  changes  of  view  in 
German  than  in  other  scholars ;  and  hence,  that 
no  one  knows  what  is  the  last  result  of  German 
Biblical  criticism  unless  he  has  read  the  last 
author.  Fuerst,  therefore,  was,  in  many  points, 
a  new  authority  as  compared  with  Gesenius ; 
men  like  Hengstenberg,  Lepsius,  and  Bunsen 
having  opened  a  new  field  of  facts  as  to  the 
products  of  Egypt  and  Palestine.  The  ablest, 
most  truly  esteemed,  and  most  conscientious  of 
Hebrew  scholars  may  be,  and  has  been,  unac- 
quainted with  facts;  and  hence  those  earlier 
criticisms. 

Since  the  appearance  of  the  volume  another 
equally  able,  justly  esteemed,  and  eminently 
conscientious  Hebrew  scholar  was  led  to  pre- 
pare a  long  list  of  verbal,  textual  criticisms  on 
the  "  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines."  The  statement 
on  p.  52  as  to  the  Sanscrit  terms  incorporated 
into  or  connate  to  the  Hebrew  of  Moses  and  of 
later  Hebrew  writers,  it  is  stated,  should  not  be 


534  ^^^  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

made  "  without  authority."  It  is  a  sufficient  reply, 
that  the  writer,  having  been  one  of  the  origina- 
tors of  the  American  Philological  Association, 
read  among  other  papers,  at  New  Haven,  to  a 
specially  large  assembly,  an  elaborate  treatise, 
citing  from  Gesenius  the  words  indicated,  and 
tracing  from  ancient  and  modern  authorities  the 
facts  as  to  commercial  and  literary  intercourse 
which  made  the  Hebrew  so  comprehensive  a 
language ;  and  that  Prof.  Hadley,  though  pri- 
vately suggesting  that  Gesenius,  as  on  the  word 
"nathan,"  had  pushed  the  resemblance  too  far, 
greatly  commended  the  study.  The  studies, 
approved  by  Dr.  Meyrowitz,  presented  on  pp. 
408  to  413,  are  but  an  expansion  of  the  fact 
early  presented.  The  derivation,  though  not, 
as  before,  the  meaning  of  "  tirosh,"  on  p.  72,  is 
questioned  ;  but  the  testimony  of  Dr.  Meyrow- 
itz, on  p.  416,  is  ample.  The  view  of  Gen.  xlix, 
II,  on  p.  49,  is  controverted  by  an  allusion  to 
Augustine  (contr.  Faust,  xii.  42)  ;  but  the  real 
view  of  Augustine,  herewith  presented,  meets 
the  objection.  The  poetic  allusion  of  Moses, 
Deut.  xxxii.  32,  it  is  thought  indicates  a  differ- 
ence in  the  "  grapes "  rather  than  the  wines. 
But  it  is  to  be  remembered  that  Moses  has  be- 
fore his  mind,  never  himself  entering  Palestine, 
his  experience  in  Egypt,  and  in  his  history  in 
Genesis,    the    fall   of  Noah,    the   invention  of 


Hebrew  Criticism  Behind  Progress.     535 

"tirosh"  in  Isaac's  day,  its  mode  of  preparation 
in*  Egypt;  but,  yet  more,  the  incest  of  Noah, 
brought  about  by  "the  wine"  of  Sodom  (Gen. 
xix.  33),  near  whose  site  he  is  writing.  The 
critic's  error  is  as  natural  as  that  of  Dr.  Moore 
regarding  a  statement  of  PHny  (see  pp.  2i2i'l  ^"^ 
384).  Origen,  as  has  been  observed,  regards 
Moses  as  here  referring  to  "  two  kinds  of  wines." 
The  statement  on  p.  68,  that  the  "vinegar," 
true  to  its  name,  "  sour  wine,"  referred  to  by 
Moses  and  other  Hebrew  writers,  was  made 
from  the  product  of  the  grape,  is  questioned, 
since  in  Num.  vi,  3  vinegar  of  "strong  drink" 
is  named.  The  reply  is  in  the  passage  and  on 
the  next  page,  for  in  Num.  vi.  3  Moses  has  in 
mind  only  the  products  of  the  grape ;  and  hence 
Jerome  (p.  69)  explains  "  chomets  shekar"  by 
"  acetum  ex  vino."  Objection  is  made  to  the 
derivation  of  "chemer"  (p.  65),  since  one  or 
two  passages  indicate  that  it  is  sometimes  a 
"  strong  wine."  This  fact  does  not  at  all  con- 
flict with  the  statement  made ;  for  as  shown,  p. 
414,  "chemer"  came  to  be  the  generic  Semitic 
word  for  wines,  covering  all  kinds,  including 
light  as  well  as  strong  wines  ;  while,  as  Rev.  Mr. 
Smith  even  (p.  436)  recognizes,  "  sherbets"  are 
unintoxicating  wines.  The  nature  of  "'asis." 
with  reference  made  to  p.  86,  is  controverted, 
Isa.  xlix.  26  being  cited.     The  statement  on  p. 


536  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines, 

94  apparently,  certainly  the  statements  on  pp. 
414-15-38-51,  had  not  been  weighed  by  the 
critic.  A  similar  doubt  as  to  the  nature  of 
"  sobe,"  p.  ^6,  is  expressed ;  but  the  Supple- 
ment, with  the  discussion  of  Roman  writers,  and 
its  statements  on  pp.  414-15-38,  had  not  met 
the  critic's  eye.  The  interpretation  given  to 
*' tirosh,"  p.  148,  is  declared  to  be  an  effort  to 
"  set  aside  the  prima  facie  testimony  of  the 
Greek  translation."  But  that  supposed  "  prima 
facie  "  testimony  is  itself  set  aside  by  the  nature 
of  "tirosh"  as  defined  by  Fuerst ;  while  also 
that  supposed  "prima  facie"  testimony  in  the 
Greek  "methusma"  is  the  vital  point  in  a  dis- 
cussion that  belongs  to  Greek  exegesis.  The 
interpretation  given  on  p.  105  to  Psal.  civ.  15 
is  declared  to  be  "  untenable."  The  early 
Christian  fathers,  especially  Jerome  and  Augus- 
tine, could  not  have  been  read  when  this  con- 
clusion was  reached.  Finally  it  is  stated  that 
the  passages  cited  on  p.  86,  indicating  the  lux- 
ury that  would  follow  the  election  of  a  king,  do 
not  mention  the  evils  of  wine-drinking.  The 
statement  reveals  the  distinction  between  the 
habit  of  a  verbal  critic  and  of  a  historic  collater ; 
which  has  its  illustration  in  comments  on  writers 
like  Aristotle  and  Paul,  repeated  in  our  own  as 
in  many  a  past  age. 


Greek  Criticism  Behind  French  Science.  537 

RECENT    CRITICISMS    ON    GREEK    AND    ROMAN     IN- 
TERPRETATIONS. 

In  a  criticism  upon  p.  47,  the  writer  above 
cited  asks  whether  "  Moses  makes  the  distinc- 
tion \itX.^tQXi  gleukos  and  oinos  glukus''  Cer- 
tainly Moses  makes  the  distinction  between 
"tirosh"  and  "yayin"  with  its  many  varieties; 
and  their  mode  of  manufacture  he  had  seen  de- 
lineated on  the  walls  of  tombs  whose  sculptures 
and  paintings  were  executed  three  centuries  be- 
fore his  birth  in  Egypt.  It  is,  of  course,  the 
Greek  translators  of  the  Old  Testament  to  whom 
the  critic  refers.  A  reference  to  Trommius' 
Concordance  of  the  Septuagint  (edit.  Amster- 
dam, 1 718),  indicates  that  the  adjective  "glukus," 
applied  to  wine,  is  used  ten  times  by  the  Old 
Testament  translators ;  its  use  as  applied  to 
honey,  Judg.  xiv.  14,  indicating  the  relation  of 
honey  to  the  strained  juice  of  the  grape  embod- 
ied in  the  ancient  Hebrew  "  debsh "  and  the 
modern  Arabic  "dibs"  (pp.  42,  65,  109).  The 
Septuagint  also  has  the  word  "gleukos"  as  a 
noun,  in  the  phrase,  "  askos  gleukous"  (Job 
xxxii.  19),  translated  by  the  editor,  "  uter  musti," 
a  skin  bottle  of  must.  For  the  full  discussion 
of  this  distinction,  the  reader  is  referred  to  the 
chain  of  authorities  cited  under  the  two  words, 
"glukus"  and  "gleukos,"  in  the  Index  to  "  Di- 
23* 


538  The  Divme  Law  as  to  Wines. 

vine  Law  as  to  Wines."  The  distinctive  mean- 
ings of  **  methe,  methuo,  methusko,"  and  its 
bearing  on  the  term  "  methusma,"  used  by  the 
Greek  translators  for  "  tirosh,"  has  been  ques- 
tioned. The  reader  is  referred  again  to  the  Index ; 
for  truth  is  consistent ;  the  meaning  of  "  tirosh" 
is  unquestioned,  as  also  the  fact  that  the  transla- 
tors of  the  Septuagint  version  understood  both 
the  Hebrew  and  Greek  terms  thus  brought  into 
comparison ;  and  while  verbal  criticism  may- 
suggest  indecision  because  of  difficulties  in  the 
mind  of  the  theoretical  teacher,  the  practical 
herald  of  divine  truth  has  grounds  as  well  as  de- 
mands for  decision.  The  analogous  usage  of 
the  word  "drink"  (pp.  138,  314),  which  has 
been  emphasized  by  a  recent  example  in  verifi- 
cation of  what  is  there  hinted  as  possible,  com- 
pels the  acceptance  of  the  line  of  testimonies 
which  the  Index  permits  the  inquirer  for  truth 
to  bring  together  for  confirmation.  The  mean- 
ing of  "  nektar,"  in  Plato's  Banquet,  p.  78,  is 
questioned,  because  Poros  (Sympos.  ii.  176)  is 
represented  as  "  intoxicated "  (methuo)  on 
nektar.  The  point  of  the  critic's  difficulty  is 
found  in  the  real  meaning  of  the  term  "  methuo  "; 
and,  as  the  meaning  of  the  term  "  nektar  "  (see 
Index),  is,  like  that  of  "  tirosh,"  ^/^questionable, 
the  question  as  to  the  meaning  of  "  methuo  " 
must  yield.     Doubt  also  is  suggested  as  to  the 


Criticism  Behind  Aristotelian  Science.     539 

meaning  of  "aporrox,"  p.  107  ;  but  decision  can 
be  reached  through  the  connections  found  in  the 
Index.  Objection  is  made,  not  to  the  rendering, 
but  to  the  application  of  Aristotle's  definition  of 
"temperance,"  on  p.  124,  because  Aristotle  does 
not,  "  in  the  connection,"  refer  to  drinking  wine. 
Here  is  the  misleading  tendency  in  "  specialists  " 
in  literary,  especially  in  Biblical  criticism.  The 
whole  history  of  counter  views,  in  every  depart- 
ment of  Christian  doctrine,  has  arisen  from  the 
doubts  as  to  a  truth,  because,  though  expressed 
in  another  statement  of  the  same  writer,  it  is  not 
stated  in  the  passage  to  which  the  specialist 
holds  his  reader.  Aristotle  certainly  states  the 
general  principle  of  "  temperance  "  as  "  absti- 
nence "  from  any  dangerous  habit.  In  his 
Ethics,  Aristotle  states  and  repeats  his  principle 
(pp.  124-6).  In  his  private  instruction  of  Alex- 
ander, and  in  the  classic  records  of  his  Meteor- 
ics.  Politics,  and  Problems,  he  directly,  repeat- 
edly, and  emphatically  applies  that  principle  to 
the  drinking  of  wine  (pp.  121-27-28,  132,  140, 
and  402).  Doubt  again  is  expressed  as  to  state- 
ments of  Dioscorides  on  p.  137.  The  reader  is 
directed  to  the  fuller  statement  of  the  Greek 
medical  writers  on  pp.  403-5.  Difficulties  are 
suggested  as  to  the  collections  of  Athenaeus,  pp. 
191-4.  As  there  indicated,  they  are  the  difficul- 
ties found  in  the  works  of  all  mere  compilers,  and 


540  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

especially  of  poets  of  convivial  habits  like  Hor 
ace  and  Byron,  whose  utterances  in  their  three 
states — of  hilarity,  of  remorse,  and  of  balanced 
truthfulness, — are  to  be  discriminated.  That 
Athenaeus  should  picture  Plato  as  teaching  in  his 
Banquet  that  the  gods  are  intoxicated  on  nectar 
was  as  natural  as  that  a  like  class  should  utter 
the  same  irony  as  to  the  apostle  Peter  and  his 
associates,  in  connection  with  "gleukos,"  where 
Luke  the  historian  recognizes  the  common  sig- 
nificance of  "  mestoo  "  and  of  "  methuo,"  by  stat- 
ing that  the  accusers  used  the  former  and  the 
respondent  the  latter  word  (Acts  ii.  13-15.  See 
Index). 

The  objections  to  the  interpretations  of  the 
Roman  writers,  calling  forth  sportive  as  well  as 
serious  assaults,  were,  so  far  as  deemed  import- 
ant, disposed  of  by  the  French  authorities  cited 
in  the  Supplement.  The  writer's  courteous, 
genial,  and  admired  coadjutor  in  the  origin  of 
the  American  Philological  Association,  alluded 
to  p.  456,  admits  having  uttered  the  genial  pun 
that  "  Samson  was  riddled."  This,  however, 
was  uttered  before  the  reading  of  the  Supple- 
ment ;  and  possibly  the  "  riddling  "  was  on  the 
other  side.  Another  critic  suggested  that  the 
ancient  Hebrew  "  abstainers,"  as  Samson,  were 
not  "Hfe-long"  in  adherence  to  this,  to  the 
critic,  doubtful  virtue.    It  is  possible  that  a  new 


** Riddlers"  in  Criticism  ''Riddled."     541 

study  of  the  "  historic  text "  may  insert  this 
textual  correction  from  some  old  manuscript 
"  find";  for  historic  texts  and  classic  authorities 
are  in  daily  jeopardy,  now  that  ''evolutions"  of 
ages  are  outrun  by  "revolutions"  of  a  day.  It 
may  be  that  the  old  Hebrew  hero  in  abstinence 
"fell  from  grace";  but  the  "textus  receptus" 
gives  present  assurance  that  he  was  the  "  riddler  " 
instead  of  the  "  riddled,"  and  that  when  at  last 
he  fell,  the  temple  of  error  fell  with  him. 

So,  too,  the  rattle  of  Arab  night-musketry  has 
been  perpetuated  upon  two  harmless  little  quota- 
tion-marks enclosing  the  word  "mustum,"  in 
the  brief  reference  to  Plautus  (p.  133).  Those 
little  commas  have  failed  to  be  "riddled,"  for 
two  good  reasons :  first,  they  were  too  minute 
to  attract  the  fire  of  good  marksmen ;  and 
second,  they  were  too  firmly  imbedded  in  the 
rock  of  truth  to  be  dislodged.  For,  first,  the 
writer  could  hardly  have  been  supposed,  when 
sleepless  over  the  whole  range  of  Hebrew,  Greek, 
Latin,  and  modern  authorities,  to  have  been 
caught  napping  over  the  little  volume  of  Plautus. 
Second,  the  writer  pursued  here  his  usual  and 
the  approved  method  of  saving  the  printer's  type 
by  employing  quotation-marks  instead  of  italics  ; 
which  latter  both  annoy  the  printer  and  mar  the 
writer's  pages ;  especially  when  the  italics  to  be 
used  make  patchwork  of  the  form,  because  of 


542  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

their  number.  Third,  the  connection  of  the 
brief  reference  to  Plautus  was  studiously  indi- 
cated with  the  fuller  citations  from  Cato,  living 
in  the  same  age  and  province ;  so  that  the  com- 
mon reader  would  not,  and  the  impartial  critic 
could  not,  be  misled.  Those  quotation  marks 
stand,  and  will  stand  ;  as  has  stood  and  will  stand 
the  old  abstainer's  "  riddle  ";  which,  as  is  note- 
worthy (see  Judg.  xiv.  14),  specially  sustains 
the  theory  of  "  unfermented  grape-juice  "  when 
strained  and  stored  even  in  open  cells  by  the 
busy  bee ;  the  type  at  once  of  industry  and  of 
abstinence  from  intoxicating  fruit-juices,  as  also 
man's  early  teacher  how  to  preserve  unfermented 
the  juice  of  the  grape  (pp.  307,  '8,  374,  380,  '2, 
•3,428,478). 

A  unique  class  of  criticisms  on  "  The  Divine 
Law  as  to  Wines  "  has  come  from  Rev.  S.  C. 
BracC;  now  of  Philadelphia ;  a  long  and  well 
known  opposer  of  "  the  two- wine  theory,"  as 
he  terms  it.  These  criticisms  began  in  a  suc- 
cession of  personal  letters  to  the  writer  soon 
after  the  appearance  of  the  volume.  In  his  third 
letter,  Mr.  Brace  acknowledges  the  courtesy  of 
the  replies  to  his  two  former  letters  ;  stating  that 
on  the  first  appearance  of  Dr.  Tayler  Lewis' 
article  favoring  "  the  two-wine  theory,"  he  wrote 
him  his  criticisms  ;  but  "  no  reply  ever  came." 
At  the  seventh  letter,  the  illegitimacy  of  the  crit- 


Rev.  Mr.  Braces  Negative  Challenges.    543 

icisms  urged,  and  the  pressure  of  higher  duties, 
compelled  a  suspension  of  the  correspondence. 
From  that  time  forward  a  continuous  succession 
of  challenges  and  offers  of  reward  for  verifica- 
tion of  Roman  and  patristic  interpretations,  and 
of  documents  cited,  has  been  kept  up :  chiefly 
in  a  secular  paper  in  Philadelphia  ;  also  in  a  few 
religious  papers,  especially  in  the  Examiner, 
of  New  York.  As  these  challenges  were  pure 
negations,  with  no  possibility  of  reply,  because 
no  translations  of  disputed  passages  were  haz- 
arded, and  no  authorities  for  denial  were  cited, 
they  have  been  allowed  generally  to  pass  unno- 
ticed. They  have  proved,  as  in  many  kindred 
cases,  the  means  of  calling  attention  to  the  truth 
maintained,  of  leading  many  candid  minds  to 
examination,  and  of  calling  out  able  opposers 
like  Dr.  Moore  and  others ;  they  have  drawn 
the  fire  and  revealed  the  tactics  of  mere  skir- 
mishers ;  and  they  have  permitted  the  demoli- 
tion of  the  well-manned  batteries  of  conscien- 
tious assailants  of  what  was  believed  to  be  error*; 
though  nothing  but  the  end  of  Christian  war- 
fare can  silence  the  guerrilla  champion  for  per- 
sonal hardihood.  Every  objection  of  legitimate 
and  justly  aimed  criticism  will  be  found  to  be 
met  in  the  first  and  second  Supplements  to  the 
volume  criticised.  The  replies  to  Mr.  Brace's 
legitimate  inquiries,  often  sent  to  leading  papers, 


544  ^-^^  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

have,  with  one  exception,  been  courteously  pub- 
lished. 

Meanwhile  amid  the  genial  witticisms  which 
manly  criticism  can  not  always  repress,  the  seri- 
ous and  difficult  questions  which  the  history  of 
language  and  the  progress  of  Science  will 
always  leave  open,  have  lingered  about  a  few 
Roman  citations  as  to  wines.  The  legitimacy 
of  the  distinction  between  the  Latin  verbs 
"  ebrio  "  and  "  inebrio"  (p.  150),  especially  as 
the  Latin  term  "  ebrietas,"  in  common  with  the 
Greek  "  methusma,"  have  been  employed  to 
interpret  the  Hebrew  "  tirosh,"  Hos.  iv.  11,  re- 
ceives new  importance  from  the  study  of  the 
special  use  of  "  inebrio  "  by  the  Christian  Fath- 
ers. The  Latin  compounds  of  the  particle  "  in  " 
cover  thirty-five  pages  of  Leverett's  Lexicon  ; 
while  its  modifications  by  assimilation,  as  "  il, 
im,"  etc.,  fill  many  more  pages.  In  a  large  por- 
tion of  these  compounds  the  particle  "  in  "  is 
privative,  or  negative,  in  signification ;  it  is  de- 
rived from  the  Greek  adverb  "aneu,"  without, 
usually  shortened  to  "  a,"  and  seen  in  the  Eng- 
lish words  "apathetic,  achromatic,"  etc.  In  the 
English  tongue,  taking  the  form  of  *'  in,  il,  im, 
un,"  etc.,  as  in  the  words  "  inconstant,  illegal, 
immodest,  unequal,"  etc.,  it  is  also  negative. 
The  other  meaning  is  that  of  the  preposition 
"  in  ";  common  to  the  whole   family  of  ancient 


'^ Inebriation^^  Spiritual,  not  Physical.     545 

and  modern  European  languages.  It  indicates 
an  inward  element,  either  as  cause,  e.  g.,  "in- 
stinct, intuition";  or  as  e^ect,  e.  g.,  "indurate"; 
or  as  both  cause  and  effect,  e.  g.,  "  inbred." 
Nothing  can  be  plainer  than  that  the  word  "  in- 
ebrio,"  a's  used  by  the  Christian  Fathers,  results 
from  an  inward  cause;  since  it  more  generally  is 
applied  to  a  nervous  exhilaration  resulting  from 
the  influence  of  the  Holy  Spirit;  a  manifesta- 
tion admirably  discussed  by  Jonathan  Edwards 
in  "  New  England  Revivals,"  under  White- 
field's  preaching.  It  is  noteworthy  that  the 
English  term  "intoxicate"  appears  in  Latin  only 
in  the  uncompounded  noun,  "  toxicum,"  a  deadly 
vegetable  poison,  the  "  toxicon,"  or  arrow  poi- 
son of  the  Greeks  ;  while  the  Latin  "  ebrio," 
has  never  been  domesticated  in  English. 

This  peculiar  term  of  Northern  European 
usage  calls  attention  to  a  fact  of  vital  importance, 
observed  especially  in  Committees  for  Bible  re- 
vision by  practical  members.  The  seclusion,  as 
well  as  the  "  specialist "  habit,  of  verbal  critics 
leads  to  marked  unfamiliarity  both  with  the  gen- 
eral connections  of  truth  and  also  with  the  pop- 
ular usage  even  of  their  mother-tongue.  This 
has  had  a  doubly  misleading  influence  on  critics 
upon  Bible  wines ;  because,  first,  commendably 
ignorant  of  the  subject-matter  treated  (pp.  74, 
441),  and  second,  unfamiliar  also  with  popular 


546  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

language  relating  to  that  subject-matter.  There 
are  three  words  common  to  the  English  tongue, 
two  to  the  Latin,  one  to  the  Greek,  expressive 
of  the  influence  of  alcoholic  beverasfes.  The 
expression  "  he  drinks,"  to  an  American  simply 
indicates  the  use  of  such  beverages ;  the  parti- 
ciple "drunk,"  however,  implies  intoxication; 
and  in  England,  the  signification  of  the  verb 
follows  that  of  the  participle.  The  expression 
"  he  is  inebriated  "  refers  directly,  and  indeed 
exclusively,  to  that  exhilaration  which  exagger- 
ates nervous  excitement  and  bodily  action.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  expression,  he  is  "intoxi- 
cated," following  the  Northern  fact  cited  by 
Shakespeare  in  Hamlet  (p.  264),  indicates  stu- 
pefaction resembling  idiocy  rather  than  insanity, 
and  leading  to  sleepy  inaction.  The  two  Latin 
terms,  "  ebrio  "  and  "  inebrio,"  certainly  are  not 
synonyms ;  and  usage,  classic  and  patristic, 
when  they  are  brought  into  contrast,  reveals 
their  distinctive  meaning.  So  the  one  Greek 
term  "  methuo,"  with  its  derivatives,  indicates 
mere  surfeit,  or  incipient  inebriation,  or  con- 
firmed intoxication  ;  as  Aristotle's  problems  (p. 
128)  are  "direct  statements,"  and  as  classic, 
Macedonian,  Hebraistic,  and  Byzantine  usage 
alike  attest.  The  Christian  Fathers  certainly 
recognized  in  the  term  "inebrio"  a  meaning  in 
harmony  with  the  Hebrew  "  tirosh,"  unfermented 


The  Challe7tged  Carthage  Decree.       547 

wine.  Other  Roman  interpretations,  as  of  Vir- 
gil's line  (Eclog.  v.  71,  see  p.  209),  not  met  in 
the  Supplement,  will  be  found  made  clear  by 
French  comments  on  the  Fathers,  as  on  Clem- 
ent. 

RECENT  CRITICISMS  ON  MEDIEVAL  INTERPRETA- 
TIONS. 

Among  these,  two  deserve  special  notice. 
The  call  for  the  decree  of  the  Council  of  Car- 
thage, alluded  to  p.  231,  has  been  as  persist- 
ently pressed  as  its  courteous  private  reply  has 
been  repeatedly  given.  In  the  necessarily  brief 
and  condensed  citations  of  the  original,  it  was 
not  supposed  that  the  full  reference  made  to 
Bingham  would  be  questioned,  or  that  his  author- 
ity as  one  of  the  ablest  scholars  of  the  English 
Church  would  be  disputed  (see  pp.  225  and 
231).  When  again  the  special  editions  of 
Augustine,  that  of  Migne  as  well  as  of  early 
commentators,  were  cited,  in  which,  in  the  Ap- 
pendix, the  very  words  quoted  are  found,  it  was 
expected  the  demand  would  be  satisfied.  As 
this  did  not  meet  the  craving  eagerness  of  the 
critic,  the  full  words  of  the  decree,  cited  by 
Migne,  in  commenting  on  Cyprian,  p.  490,  are 
given. 

The   denial  of  the  correctness   of  the   state- 
pent  as  to  the  Arabic  term  "  el-jid,"  has  been 


54^  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

yet  more  persistently  pressed.  Its  legitimacy 
will  appear  by  considering  both  the  Greek  and 
Arabic  terms  found  in  John  ii.  lo.  The  Greek 
term  is  not  "  agathos,"  good  in  permanent  es- 
sence ;  but  "  kalos,"  beautiful,  goodly  or  good- 
like ;  i.  e.,  good  in  present  aspect  and  adaptation. 
These  two  meanings  are  brought  together  in 
Matt.  vii.  17,  18:  where  the  term  "agathos"  is 
applied  to  the  "  tree,"  as  permanently  and  essen- 
tially good  ;  while  the  term  "  kalos  "  is  applied 
to  the  "  fruits,"  as  **  good-like  "  in  aspect,  and 
as  "good"  in  their  adaptation  during  the  tem- 
porary stage  between  immature  unripeness  and 
over-mature  decay.  These  distinct  meanings 
of  "  agathos  "  and  "  kalos,"  as  employed  by  the 
Greek  translators  of  the  Old  Testament  in  ren- 
dering the  Hebrew  word  "tob,"  are  presented 
at  length  by  Fuerst.  The  modern  Arabic  word, 
"tayib,"  cognate  with  the  Hebrew  "tob," 
heard  constantly  by  the  traveller  among  Arabs, 
has  the  same  double  meaning.  How  carefully 
the  Greek  translators  used  these  two  terms  may 
be  observed  in  the  early  chapters  of  Genesis, 
where  "tob"  indicates  present  adaptation,  and 
is  rendered  by  "  kalos  ";  while  in  Ecclesiastes, 
where  man's  essential  and  permanent  "  good  " 
is  in  the  writer's  mind,  the  word  "  tob  "  is  ren- 
dered by  "  agathos."  It  is  specially  illustrative 
of  the  Greek  term  "kalos,"  used  John   ii.  10, 


Denial  as  to  Arabic  "  El-jidy         549 

that  Matthew  employs  it  no  less  than  eight 
times  in  the  several  parables  brought  together 
in  this  thirteenth  chapter  (see  vv.  8,  23,  24,  27^ 
2>7y  38,  45.  48);  "  ground  "  being  good  only  when 
newly  tilled;  "seed"  being  good  only  when 
new ;  "  fish "  being  good  only  when  newly 
caught  and  fresh  ;  and  "pearls"  being  in  nature 
"  beautiful,"  and  hence  described  as  "  goodly." 
In  keeping  now  with  this  meaning,  the  Arabic 
translators  rendered  the  Greek  "kalos,"  in  John 
ii.  10,  by  "jid";  whose  root  and  derived  terms 
may  be  traced  in  Gesenius'  Hebrew  Lexicon 
under  the  cognate  term  "gad,"  in  the  Arabic 
Lexicon  of  Freytag,  in  the  Hebrew  Grammars 
of  Gesenius  or  Green,  and  in  the  Arabic  Gram- 
mar of  D.  Stewart  (London,  1841),  or  of  any 
other  author.  The  root  verb  "jid  "  is  a  biliteral, 
belonging  to  the  class  called  "  double-ayin  "  by 
Hebrew,  and  "surd"  by  Arabic  grammarians; 
which  biliteral  roots  become  triliteral  by  the 
repetition  of  their  second  consonant.  From  the 
root-verb  "jid"  are  derived  the  words  "jid" 
and  "jud"  by  inserted  vowel  letters;  and  also 
"jedid"  by  repeating  the  second  consonant. 
All  these  derivatives  have  meanings  associated 
with  those  of  their  root.  Under  the  root-verb 
"jid,"  are  found  in  Freytag's  Lexicon  the  mean- 
ings :  "  novus  fuit,"  it  was  new  ;  "  renovavit," 
he    renewed;   "novum    fecit,"   he    made    new; 


550  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

"  renovatus  fuit,"  it  was  renewed  ;  "  novum  ce- 
pit,"  he  takes  new  ;  "  pro  novo  habuit,"  he  holds 
as  new.  Under  the  derivative  "  jedid  "  is  found 
the  meaning  "  arena  mollis,"  mellow  soil.  Un- 
der the  derivative  "jedid,  which  has  the  second 
consonant  repeated  and  also  the  vowel  letter 
inserted,  are  found  the  meanings  "  novus,"  new, 
and  also  "  noviter  confectus,"  newly  prepared. 
These  meanings  not  only  justify  the  statement 
as  to  John  ii.  lo,  on  p.  223,  but  also  throw  di- 
rect light  on  the  use  of  "  kalos,"  applied  by 
Matthew  to  "  ground,  seed  and  fish  ";  the  result 
of  discussion  as  to  "  unfermented  wines,"  not 
only  sustaining  the  general  law  of  their  prepa- 
ration, but  extending  the  field  of  their  historic 
preservation  over  the  entire  range,  both  of  the 
fields  and  of  the  ages  of  Bible  study. 

RESULTS  ATTAINED  AND  THE  TRUTH  ESTABLISHED. 

It  is  the  lament  of  the  ablest  and  oldest  Bib- 
lical scholars  at  the  present  day,  that  the  as- 
sured and  the  valuable  results  of  the  labors  of 
countless  earnest  explorers  have  been  so  mea- 
gre. In  fact  the  remorseless  axe  of  the  wood- 
man, sparing  not  a  tree  venerated  in  the  past, 
has  only  opened  new  lands  to  noxious  weeds, 
and  has  diverted  the  showers  that  once  watered 
the  tilled  lands ;  and  that  because  "  history,"  as 


Results  Positive ;  not  *' Sceptical.'*       551 

when  Bacon  wrote,  has  been  set  aside  by  indi- 
vidual fancy.  The  labor  devoted  to  that  boon 
of  all  ages,  the  revival  of  ancient  knowledge, 
not  conjecture,  as  to  "  unfermented  wines,"  be- 
gun by  Nott  and  Stuart,  fifty  years  ago,  and 
conscientiously  prosecuted  to  this  day,  has  not 
been  fruitless.  The  connected  statement  of 
those  results,  designed  for  general  readers,  rath- 
er than  for  special  students  of  detail,  will  appear 
in  a  tract  closing  this  volume.  Those  results 
in  every  field  but  that  of  the  Christian  Fathers, 
have  been  sufficiently  elaborated  in  the  volume 
and  in  the  first  Supplement.  The  facts  as  to 
"  unfermented  wines  "  as  taught  by  the  Chris- 
tian Fathers  may  be  briefly  summarized 

As  the  Divine  Author  of  all  things  has  left 
the  "  law  of  wines"  to  be  learned  by  the  teach- 
ings of  nature,  a  law  palpable  to  its  violators 
and  sought  in  all  ages  by  wise  and  good  men, 
the  Christian  Fathers  present  that  light  as  it 
shines  not  only  in  the  Old  and  New  Testament 
Scriptures,  but  in  the  whole  range  of  Asiatic 
and  Greek  and  Roman  Literature.  Clement 
was  an  Aristotle,  and  Jerome  a  Pliny  in  this 
field  of  research  ;  though  their  "  direct  state- 
ments "  have  been  "  hidden  by  the  God  of  this 
world,"  as  was  Clement's  unfolding  of  the  hie- 
roglyphic, system,  and  as  was  Jerome's  balanced 
historic  record  as  to  the  Apostle   Peter.     The 


552  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

fathers  of  the  early  centuries  found  many  intel- 
ligent and  conscientious  disciples  of  Christ 
that  were  forerunners  of  the  "  Friends  "  in  mod- 
ern ages  ;  who,  because  of  their  perversion,  have 
abandoned  Christ's  appointed  ordinances.  These 
conscientious  men,  like  Samson  and  Samuel, 
Jonadab  and  Daniel,  John  and  Timothy,  ab- 
stained from  all  products  of  the  grape,  not  only  as 
a  beverage  and  a  medicine,  but  also  at  the  ordi- 
nance of  the  Lord's  Supper.  True  Christian 
leaders  sustained  the  balanced  law  of  the  Egyp- 
tians in  Abraham's  and  Melchisedek's  day;  the 
law  of  Moses  for  offerings  in  the  special  land 
of  the  vine ;  the  custom  of  the  Hebrew  Passo- 
ver maintained  to  this  day ;  the  unfermented 
"  fruit  of  the  vine,"  made  and  drank  by  Christ, 
and  by  him  appointed  to  be  used  at  his  Supper; 
and  the  "medicinal"  wine  commended  by  Paul 
only  for  occasional  and  specially  limited  use. 
This  provision,  sought,  invented,  and  constantly 
maintained  by  the  best  men  of  ancient  civilized 
lands,  was  alike  opposed  to  two  extremes :  the 
prohibition,  on  the  one  hand,  of  all  wine,  as  in 
the  early  Brahminic  code,  and  found  by  Moses 
among  the  Nazarite  bands  existing  centuries  be- 
fore he  was  born  ;  and  on  the  other  hand  the  use 
at  the  Supper  of  wine  the  least  intoxicating, 
when  the  location  failed  to  furnish  the  unfer- 
mented wine ;  in  which  case  the  wine  used  was 


Challenge  of  Second  Century  Met.      553 

largely  diluted  by  water  and  only  a  few  drops 
were  partaken.  Their  associated  statements  as 
to  unintoxicating  wine,  and  the  wine  of  the  Sup- 
per, are  briefly  these. 

In  the  second  century  these  four  witnesses 
are  found.  Justin  states  that  the  wine  in  Jacob's 
blessing,  "  tirosh,"  or  "  unfermented  wine,"  was 
the  "  fruit  of  the  vine  "  appointed  for  the  Lord's 
Supper ;  and  that  Moses  contrasts  it  with  the 
intoxicating  "  cup  of  the  devil,"  offered  by  the 
priests  of  Baal  and  of  Egypt.  Irenseus,  living 
far  north,  in  Central  France,  represents  the  cup 
of  the  Lord's  Supper  as  "  mixed  "  with  water, 
the  location  requiring  this  resort.  Clement,  the 
representative  of  all  religions  then  contrasted 
with  the  Christian,  declares,  "  we  do  not  abolish 
social  intercourse,"  but  we  avoid  "snares  of 
custom."  He  says  Paul's  view  favors  "absti- 
nence "  from  wine,  as  does  that  of  Pythagoras. 
He  states  that  Moses  discriminated  between  the 
wine  used  at  Hebrew  festivals  and  at  sensual 
idol-feasts,  as  did  Plato.  He  finds  raisin-wine 
in  David's  army  provisions.  The  wine  approved 
of  Paul  is  medicinal,  made  from  unfermented 
must ;  and  that  limited  as  in  a  physician's  pre- 
scription. The  cup  Christ  appointed  for  the 
Supper  was  "the  blood  of  the  grape- cluster." 
Water  is  the  natural  healthful  beverage,  Israel 
for  forty  years  having  no  wine ;  and  the  Eshcol 
24 


554  '^^^  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

grape-cluster  was  meant  to  be  a  type  of  their 
future  use  of  the  grape.  As  the  Jews  in  Pales- 
tine, so  the  Christian  world  at  large,  could  ob- 
tain by  commerce,  wine  like  the  "Arvisian,"  or 
unintoxicating  "  nectar."  Long  life,  as  Artorius 
taught,  is  promoted  by  drinking  "  the  sweet 
grape-juices,"  this  constituting  the  aperient  in 
medicinal  wine.  The  wine  Christ  made  and  drank 
was  conformed  to  the  laws  of  Plato  and  to  the 
morals  of  Aristotle  ;  and  the  wine  He  appointed 
as  the  emblem  of  His  "  blood,"  was  "  the  blood 
of  the  vine,"  to  which  His  disciples  are  joined  as 
branches.  As  a  concluding  and  climactic  lesson 
drawn  from  the  teachings  of  revelation,  Clem- 
ent cites  the  fall  of  Noah  through  error  and 
fault  in  making  and  partaking  intoxicating  wines  ; 
he  regards  the  temptation  to  intoxicating  wine 
as  the  root  as  well  as  the  type  of  the  curse  ever 
since  resting  on  families,  States  and  Churches ; 
while  he  adds  Homer's  accordant  and  supple- 
mentary testimony  from  the  teachings  of  nature, 
that  the  exchange  among  godlike  men,  of  well- 
known  unintoxicating  for  intoxicating  wines, 
shuts  such  men  out  of  the  companionship  and 
honors  of  celestial  citizenship.  Finally,  Tertul- 
lian  declares  that  Christ  brought  His  followers 
back  to  Roman  virtue  as  to  wine  ;  that  the  wine 
of  the  Supper  was  prophesied  by  Jacob  to  Ju- 
dah  and  pictured  by  Isaiah  as  fresh  grape-juice 


^'Two  Wines''  and  two  Kinds  of ''Skins"  555 

dyeing  his  garments ;  and  is  that  expressed  for 
immediate  use  from  the  cluster. 

In  the  third  century  four  witnesses  meet. 
Origen  mentions  three  kinds  of  wine  and  two 
kinds  of  skin-bottles  for  their  preservation  ;  and 
he  shows  that  these  three  kinds  of  wine  were 
described  by  Moses,  David,  Solomon,  Isaiah, 
and  Jeremiah.  The  wine  with  deadly  poison, 
preserved  in  skins  unguarded  from  the  air,  was 
the  wine  of  Sodom,  given  by  his  incestuous 
daughters  to  Lot,  and  drank  by  "the  impious" 
at  their  feasts.  The  wine  free  from  the  intoxi- 
cating element  was  preserved  in  oiled  skins ; 
and  was  that  blessed  by  Isaac,  that  promised 
by  Jacob,  that  commended  and  used  by  David, 
and  that  appointed  by  Christ  as  "  the  cup  of  the 
new  covenant."  Between  these  two  was  the 
"  mixed  cup,"  partially  fermented  wine,  mingled 
with  water,  drank  by  unstable  Christians,  and, 
in  necessary  cases,  allowed  at  the  Lord's  Sup- 
per. Most  important  of  all,  Origen  in  the  third 
century,  like  Nott  in  the  nineteenth  century, 
found  that  the  spotless  character  of  Christ  was 
exposed  to  just  and  successful  assault  from  op- 
posers  like  the  sceptic  Marcion,  because  the 
officers  of  some  Christian  Churches  mistook 
Christ's  practice  and  appointment,  and  hence 
themselves  indulged  in,  and  furnished  for  their 
brethren  at  the  Lord's  table,  intoxicating  wines. 


556  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

Cyprian,  meeting  conscientious  Christians  who 
abstained  from  wine  at  the  Supper,  says  that 
the  wine  given  by  Melchisedek,  in  which  age 
"  tirosh,"  or  unfermented  wine,  was  made  in 
Egypt  and  mentioned  by  Isaac,  was  that  fore- 
shadowed for  Christ's  Supper ;  that  what  He 
appointed  was  "the  blood  of  the  true  vine"; 
and  that  this,  His  appointment,  should  never  be 
varied  unless  necessity  compelled  the  use  of 
"wine  mixed  with  water."  This  wine  he  finds 
in  that  promised  by  Jacob  and  drank  by  David  ; 
and  the  exhilaration  attending  its  partaking  is 
not  that  of  physical  "  inebriation,"  but  of  spir- 
itual fervor.  Zeno  states  that  the  wine  of  the 
Supper  was  "must";  that  this  was  the  wine 
partaken  by  Melchisedek,  Abraham,  Jacob,  and 
Joseph  ;  again,  that  while  wild  honey  was  John's 
home-fare,  that  of  Jesus  was  "must";  that  the 
"fruit  of  the  vine"  used  at  His  Supper,  was  in 
sweetness  like  His  words  ;  and  that  at  the  Pen- 
tecost, the  "  must "  which  the  inspired  Christian 
band  were  charged  with  drinking,  was  a  type  of 
the  pure  enthusiasm  begotten  by  the  Holy  Spir- 
it. Arnobius  commends  the  wines  approved  by 
Plato  and  by  the  early  Romans  in  religious  rites  ; 
he  quotes  Virgil's  pictures  of  "nectar"  as  the 
only  fit  beverage  and  offering;  and  declares  that 
in  all  cases  of  need  the  wine  used  should  be 
"  specially  prepared,"  as  Christ  directed  to  the 


Constantine s  Teachers  on  Wines.       557 

two  who  prepared  for  His  last  Supper,  and  as 
the  Jews  still  make  raisin-wine  for  all  religious 
services. 

In  the  fourth  century  three  associates  of  the 
first  Christian  emperor  are  witnesses.  Eusebi- 
us,  Constantine's  biographer,  traces  how  the 
preparation  of  the  Gentile  nations,  as  well  as 
of  the  Jews,  for  "  the  truth  as  it  is  in  Jesus"  was 
aided  by  their  recognition  of  "  the  Divine  law 
as  to  wines  ";  how  Grecian  philosophy  and  Ro- 
man law,  in  common  with  Nazarite  abstinence 
and  with  Egyptian,  Hebrew,  and  Roman  unintox- 
icating  wines,  promoting  limited  reform  but  not 
securing  radical  redemption,  paved  the  highway 
for  Him  that  was  to  come.  Lactantius,  Con- 
stantine's family  tutor,  contrasts  the  altar-fires, 
"drenched  with  perfumed  and  age-honored 
wines  "  by  "  men  stained  with  vices  and  crimes," 
with  the  "  new  and  pure  "  fruit  of  the  vine  ap- 
pointed by  Christ  for  His  new-born  and  spiritu- 
ally purified  followers.  Athanasius,  Constan- 
tine's theological  adviser,  presents  facts  op- 
posed to  heathen  and  Arian  views  in  connec- 
tion with  the  wine  of  the  Supper.  While  the 
people  of  India,  worshipping  Bacchus,  poured 
out  wine  as  an  offering,  the  Egyptians,  who 
adored  the  Nile,  used  water  in  offerings  and  in 
lustrations  ;  heathen  ideas  having  no  consisten- 
cy.    On  the  other  hand,  the  wine  appointed  by 


558  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

Christ,  secured  freedom  from  intoxication  ;  it 
was  foreshadowed  in  the  pure  cup  Melchisedek 
offered  to  Abraham,  and  in  the  "blood  of 
grapes  "  promised  by  Jacob  as  Judah's  blessing  ; 
and  it  was  in  keeping  with  Christ's  perfectly 
holy  nature,  exhilarating  not  the  body  but  the 
mind. 

The  five  witnesses  representing  different  re- 
gions during  the  latter  half  of  the  fourth  centu- 
ry, called  to  oppose  the  naturally  demoralizing 
tendencies  in  the  newly-established  State  Church, 
are  more  outspoken  as  to  wines  appropriate  to 
Christian  uses.  Hilarius,  in  Southern  France,  op- 
posing Arian  views  even  to  the  loss  of  his  po- 
sition, contrasts  the  cup  of  vicious  indulgence 
causing  compunction,  and  the  cup  Christ  blessed 
giving  joy  to  the  heart.  Epiphanius,  a  mediator 
between  extreme  parties  on  the  question  of 
Christ's  nature,  in  opposing  the  extreme  view 
which  rejected  wine  at  the  Lord's  Supper,  traces 
the  contrast  between  the  wine  that  caused  No- 
ah's fall  and  Lot's  incest,  drank  at  Israel's  dance 
about  the  golden  calf  and  pictured  by  Solomon, 
and  the  pure  cup  of  David,  made  and  appointed 
by  Christ,  who  condemned  both  surfeiting  and 
drunkenness.  Ambrose,  in  Northern  Italy,  fore- 
runner of  modern  return  to  the  primitive  Church 
of  Rome,  urges  that  wine  is  not  mentioned  be- 
fore the  flood ;  that  Noah  was  permitted  to  in- 


Marcion  the  Perverter  of  '*  Bible  Wines ^  559 

vent  it  as  a  test  of  obedience  to  natural  law  ;  he 
draws  out  the  history  of  intoxicating  wine  from 
Noah's  day,  causing  man's  fall,  and  the  "tirosh" 
blessed  by  Isaac,  drank  by  David,  and  adhered 
to  by  even  Epicurus  ;  he  insists  that  Paul's  lan- 
guage commending  a  Httle  wine  as  medicine, 
implies,  in  accordance  with  his  teaching  else- 
where, the  duty  of  abstinence  from  it  as  a  bev- 
erage ;  he  urges  that  the  abstinence  of  Israel  in 
the  Desert,  and  of  th€  line  of  superior  men  like 
Samuel,  Daniel,  John,  and  Timothy,  enforces  it 
as  Christian  virtue  ;  while  the  cup  of  the  Lord's 
Supper  had  its  type  in  that  of  Melchisedek,  in- 
deed in  the  water  from  the  rock,  flowing  at  the 
touch  of  Moses.  Basil,  the  head  of  the  Greek 
Church  when  the  separation  from  Rome  began, 
is  (p.  211)  specially  strict  in  condemning  the 
use  of  intoxicating  wine  and  in  urging  David's 
pure  cup  as  the  beverage  "of  men  redeemed  "; 
he  urges  the  duty  of  following  the  principle, 
though  not  the  letter,  of  the  Nazarite's  absti- 
nence, regarding  it  as  taught  by  Solomon,  Prov. 
xxiii.  3 1 ;  and  he  declares  that  the  Grecian  law  for 
the  abstinence  of  rulers  (p.  120)  should  pre- 
eminently, as  Paul  states  (i  Tim.  iii.),  control 
"  rulers "  in  the  Church.  Chrysostom,  the 
Court  preacher,  pictures  the  disgrace  of  drink- 
ing intoxicating  wine ;  he  urges  that  the  words 
of  Christ,  "  fruit  of  the  vine,"  and  the  sentiment 


560  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

"  ye  do  show  forth  his  death,''  alike  demon- 
strated the  purity  of  the  cup  at  the  Supper  ;  and 
in  meeting  the  assaults  of  opposers,  he  empha- 
sizes by  insertion,  as  does  Clement,  the  words 
of  Christ,  "  the  fruit  of  this  vine."  He  espe- 
cially urges  that  Marcion,  the  corrupter  of  the 
text  of  the  New  Testament,  was  the  leader  in 
perverting  Christ's  pure  appointment  as  to 
wines.  Cyril,  representing  at  this  age  the  home 
of  Jesus,  emphasizes  (p.  212)  the  term  "good," 
used  by  Moses  at  creation,  developed  in  Psalm 
civ.,  seen  in  the  wine  therein  commended  and 
in  that  made  by  Christ  (John  ii.  10),  declaring 
it  to  be  literally  "wine  in  vines";  likening  it  to 
the  "  gleukos  "  of  Acts  ii.  13  ;  and  urging  that 
Paul  did  not  commend  wine  as  a  beverage, 
while  as  a  medicine  he  urged  the  restriction  en- 
forced by  faithful  nurses. 

The  two  great  leaders,  the  scholar  and  the 
advocate  of  the  age  that  fixed  opinions  for  ten 
centuries,  down  to  the  Reformation,  Jerome  and 
Augustine,  combine  and  make  clear  on  the  sub- 
ject of  wines,  all  the  teachings  of  their  prede- 
cessors. Jerome  comments  on  almost  every 
statement  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments  now 
criticised;  he  makes  the  "  fruit  of  the  vine"  used 
by  Christ  to  be  the  "red  must"  fresh  from  the 
tread-vat,  the  same  in  nature  as  the  "  tirosh"  of 
Isaac's  day,  and  commended   throughout   the 


Augustine,  the  Model  Abstinence-Preacher.  561 

\ 

Old  Testament ;  and  he  directly  declares  it  "  con- 
trary "  to  the  "  wine  of  Sodom,"  drank  by  Lot ; 
he  urges  that  Paul's  teaching  indicates  that  ab- 
stinence from  wine  as  a  beverage  is  a  virtue, 
and  that  "  youth  should  flee  from  wine  as  from 
poison."  Augustine,  the  advocate,  meets  the 
opposers  of  every  class  who  objected  to  wine 
at  the  Lord's  Supper.  He  indicates  that  Christ 
called  men  back  to  the  Roman  virtue  of  offering 
"the  first  fruits  of  the  vine,"  He  declares  that 
the  exhilaration  of  the  Supper  is  the  opposite 
of  physical  inebriation,  being  purely  spiritual. 
He  makes  the  wine  blessed  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment to  have  been  literally  the  "  blood  of  the 
grape";  the  same  in  kind  as  that  appointed  by 
Christ  for  the  Supper,  and  a  fit  type  of  His  un- 
tainted blood.  He  declares  the  cup  of  the  Sup- 
per to  be  such  as  "  a  little  child  may  drink "; 
and  he  insists  that  it  should  be  the  pure  "fruit  of 
the  vine"  except  in  necessity  ;  in  which  case  the 
wine  should  be  diluted  with  water.  He  presses 
this  fact  repeatedly  and  by  varied  comments,  and 
in  his  sermons  more  than  justifies,  by  his  con- 
stant moral  teaching  on  this  duty,  the  most 
earnest  of  modern  advocates  for  abstinence  from 
intoxicating  wines  as  a  beverage.  Theodoret, 
utterinor  a  later  voice  and  from  the  first  home  ot 
mankind,  where  both  Adam  and  Noah  fell,  pro- 
longs the  echo  of  the  call  now  revived  through- 


24* 


562  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

out  Western  Europe  and  America ;  calling 
back  the  churches  of  Christ  to  His  primitive 
appointment  for  the  wine  of  His  Supper. 


OBSTACLES  TO  THE  ACCEPTANCE  OF  RESULTS 
ATTAINED. 

It  was  not  without  forethought  this  allusion 
was  made  in  the  opening  page  (p.  5)  of  "  The 
Divine  Law  as  to  Wines  ":  that  both  prejudice 
and  pre-judgment  may  oppose  the  reception  of 
truth,  especially  as  to  wines ;  while,  too,  it  was  de- 
clared :  "both  a  clear  eye  and  a  comprehensive 
survey  "  are  the  demand  of  the  age  in  the  field 
proposed.  That  long  array  of  great  and  good 
men,  in  the  same  age,  country,  and  Church, — 
Nott,  Stuart,  Tayler  Lewis,  Baird,  Bush,  Pat- 
ton, — came  up  in  review  ;  baffled  heroes  in  a 
battle  yet  hot ;  unequalled  champions  in  a  dis- 
cussion yet  warm.  The  inquiry  was  a  natural 
one,  "  Why  are  not  such  men,  whose  scholar- 
ship, logical  consistency,  and  conscientious  con- 
viction on  any  other  question  are  trusted — why 
are  they  not  trusted  as  to  the  wines  directly  ap- 
proved and  the  wines  as  directly  disapproved 
in  the  Old  and  New  Testaments  ?"  The  seven 
"  causes  of  differing  conclusions  "  (pp.  20  to  28), 
gathered  from  the  experience  of  those  men, 
have  not  only  been  verified,  but  reproduced  and 


Casters  of  Stumbling- Blocks.  563 

emphasized  at  every  new  stage  of  the  recent 
discussion.  Most  of  all,  the  tendencies  of  Ger- 
man Biblical  criticism,  urged  by  Stuart  through- 
out his  long  life,  and  made  the  special  sub- 
ject of  the  last  essay  that  came  from  his  pen 
(^Bib.  Sacr.,  Jan.,  1852),  are  now  apparent  to 
American  scholars  in  the  chaotic  text  of  the  re- 
vised New  Testament  The  review  of  those 
seven  "obstacles  to  the  acceptance  of  results 
attained,"  calls  for  these  added  statements. 

First,  the  breadth  of  the  field  surveyed,  as 
limitless  as  the  range  of  human  history  and 
of  preserved  literature,  forbids  that  exhaustive 
survey  or  statement  of  detail  which  alone  will 
silence  mere  controversialists.  Yet  more :  men 
ruled,  now  by  the  "law  in  the  members,"  and 
now  by  "  the  law  of  the  mind,"  now  "  piping  for 
the  dance  "  and  now  "  mourning  for  lost  pleas- 
ures "  of  indulgence — writers  including  men  of 
genius  like  Horace  and  Byron,  compilers  like 
Athenaeus  and  Wilson  (p.  259),  utter,  under  dif- 
ferent moods,  sentiments  so  varied,  "  their 
thoughts  either  accusing  or  excusing  one  anoth- 
er," that  the  decision  of  reason  and  "  con- 
science" will  certainly  be  differently  weighed 
by  students  of  different  schools.  Yet  once 
more,  the  best  of  men,  seen  among  the  Chris- 
tian Fathers  as  among  modern  Christian  teach- 
ers, may  so  "seek   the  things   that   make    for 


564  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

peace"  that  they  will  remain  silent  lest  their 
honest  convictions  should  subject  themselves  or 
the  cause  they  most  love,  to  misconception. 

Second,  reliance  almost  exclusively  on  Ger- 
man scholarship,  to  the  discredit  of  native  capac- 
ity for  independent  investigation,  to  vi^hich  the 
American  public  are  now  so  extensively  awake, 
demands  yet  increased  consideration.  Specula- 
tive in  political  theories  as  Guizot  shows,  and 
in  philosophy  as  Hamilton,  McCosh,  and  Por- 
ter agree,  rationalistic  in  Bible  interpretation 
as  master  Greek  scholars  like  Crosby  have  de- 
clared, swayed  by  State-Church  prejudice  in 
Church  history  as  teachers  like  Fisher  have 
perceived,  tempted  by  that  insidious  deceiver 
whom  even  the  saintly  Dorner  has  met  at  a 
fatal  cross-road  where  Luther  defied  the  foe, — 
the  special  speculations  of  German  exegetes  as 
to  wines  were  brought  out  by  Hengstenberg, 
the  master  writer  on  "  Christology  "  in  accord 
with  Stuart;  whose  "Egypt  and  the  Books  of 
Moses  "  (pp.  21,  53),  written  in  1840  and  issued 
in  English  from  the  Andover  press  in  1843, 
recognized  the  aid  of  scholars  like  Edwards  and 
Hackett,  and  is  still  a  guide  to  the  Egyptian 
traveller,  as  it  is  to  the  student  of  Bible  wines. 
The  oversight  of  the  ablest  Hebrew  scholars 
as  to  the  "latest"  utterances  of  German  lexi- 
cographers, noted  above,  demands  increased  ap- 


Family  "  Wine-Fashion  "  Family  Ruin.    565 

preciation  among  American  scholars  of  men 
like  Stuart,  who  have  inaugurated  an  American 
school  in  Bible  exegesis. 

Third,  the  insidious  fascination  of  what  is 
imagined  to  be  the  '' custom  oi  courtly  {2scvX\^'=,'' 
perfectly  serpent-like,  as  in  Eden  with  man's 
chief  charmer,  has  received  fresh  confirmation 
since  the  review  on  270  to  273  was  penned. 
When  the  New  York  Herald,  regarded  as  the 
echo  of  the  last  voice  of  European  fashion  in 
so-called  "good  society,"  three  years  ago  came 
out  in  advocacy  of  "  coffee-houses,"  to  which 
laboring  men  could  resort  in  place  of  "beer 
shops  "  for  their  noon-day  rest  amid  winter-cold 
(p.  329),  it  was  certainly  an  admission,  that  the 
sons  of  fortune,  as  urged  by  Pliny  (p.  389) 
less  able  than  the  sons  of  toil  to  work  off  the 
evil  influence  of  "  fermented  "  wines,  need  the 
safeguard  of  wines  guarded  from  ferment. 
What  but  the  seductive,  fascinating  spell  which 
imposes  the  rule  of  "  fashion  "  among  the 
wealthy  of  New  York,  could  still  the  voice  and 
hamper  the  pen  of  intelligent  and  conscientious 
editors,  reporters,  and  contributors;  who  seem 
to  hail  the  swift-gliding  bark,  under  the  spell  of 
Circe,  that  is  rushing  through  Niagara  rapids, 
while  even  infatuated  Ulysses  sees  not  the 
vortex. 

Fourth,  the  fact  that  two- thirds  of  the  pub- 


566  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

lie,  and  nine-tenths  of  the  domestic  wretched- 
ness in  Christian  lands  comes  through  beer- 
shops  and  wine-cellars  is  an  echo  of  the  wail 
from  the  second  fall — made  the  mockery  of  the 
younger  son  and  the  shame  of  the  two  elder — 
the  sad  forewarning  that  the  old  age  of  apolo- 
gists for  fashionable  wine-drinking,  may  witness 
the  opprobrium  of  the  sot  clamoring  more  and 
more  for  his  tonic.  The  patriarchal  search  for 
an  antidote,  its  discovery  in  Egypt  before  Abra- 
ham, wisdom's  warning  that  in  the  second  fall 
the  serpent's  eye  and  tongue  sparkle  and  sting 
in  the  wine-cup, — when  will  these  voices,  echoed 
and  re-echoed  by  Greek  and  Roman,  heard 
from  the  pulpit  and  covering  the  page  for  five 
centuries  of  the  best  leaders  in  the  Christian 
Church — when  will  they  be  heard  ?  They  are 
gaining  listeners  ! 

Fifth,  nothing  but  the  special  pleading  of 
advocates  in  a  hopeless  cause — a  style  of  argu- 
ment that  would  not  be  tolerated  in  any  court 
of  justice  or  in  any  scientific  association — could 
prompt  the  assault  upon  the  wisest  and  best 
Christian  teachers  and  pastors  seeking  to  save 
their  flocks,  coming  from  so-called  "  specialists  " 
in  Biblical  criticism  on  the  truth  as  to  "  unfer- 
mented  wines."  Such  specialists,  met  from  the 
days  of  the  earliest  Christian  Fathers,  will  not 
"  lead  "  Christ's  flock. 


Unscientific  Criticism  as  to  Wine.      567 

Sixth,  professional  men,  medical  as  well  as 
theological  instructors,  are  on  trial  before  an 
honest  and  scrutinizing  public.  The  husband, 
the  wife,  the  mother,  who  implore  thai:  the  seeds 
of  life-long  appetite  be  not  implanted  by  reck- 
less physicians,  is  causing  a  just  reaction.  Men 
whose  mothers  burned  out  the  alcohol  from 
brandy  before  giving  it  as  a  tonic,  who  have 
learned  that  the  ancient  medicinal  wines  of 
Christ's  day,  Roman  and  French  authorities 
attesting  it,  were  "  must,"  will  echo  the  warning ; 
for  they  know  whereof  they  affirm ! 

UNSCIENTIFIC  CRITICISM  OF  HISTORIC    RECORDS  AS 
TO  WINES. 

Seven  years  of  discussion  has  brought  out, 
most  palpably,  what  Stuart  in  the  early  part  of 
the  nineteenth  century,  and  what  evangelical 
Biblical  scholars  in  former  ages  back  to  Christ's 
day,  have  discovered  and  noted  :  that  truth  has 
connections  interlocking  into  every  field  of  sur- 
vey ;  that  error  at  a  single  point,  in  moral  as  in 
mathematical  reasoning,  runs  into  all  conclusions 
reached  by  sincere  though  erring  minds ;  and 
that  the  methods  of  errorists  are  unscientific. 
The  criticism  on  the  citation  of  Paul,  Col.  ii. 
21,  "Touch  not,  taste  not,  handle  not,"  is  a 
case  specially  illustrative.  Cited  by  Paul,  as 
"  the  spirit  of  truth,"  which  guided  him,  designed 


568  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines, 

it  should  be  quoted  by  advocates  of  abstinence 
from  intoxicating  beverages,  its  interpretation 
has  a  history  running  back  to  Paul's  day,  most 
instructive  as  to  kindred  facts  developed  in  all 
ages ;  our  own  being  specially  confirmatory. 
This  passage  has  been  on  the  minds  of  the  line 
of  defenders  of  Christ's  pure  appointment  as  to 
■wines,  whose  succession  is  traced  in  the  "  Di- 
vine Law  as  to  Wines  "  from  the  earliest  ages  of 
Christ's  revelation.  Clement  three  times  alludes 
to  it ;  Tertullian  comments  on  it ;  Grotius,  the 
founder  of  the  Science  of  International  Law,  as 
well  as  a  master  theologian  of  the  Reformation, 
and  Poole,  the  "pillar"  of  Biblical  scholarship 
at  the  same  era,  quote  these  fathers  on  this  pas- 
sage ;  and  the  early  leaders  in  abstinence  from 
intoxicating  drinks,  who  handed  down  the  works 
of  these  later  master-scholars  to  their  children, 
would  abjure  them  as  unworthy  if  they  allowed 
scientific  truth  to  be  overridden  by  destructive 
Biblical  criticism  when  they  know  whither  its 
tide  is  sweeping. 

The  maxim  quoted.  Col.  ii.  21,  is  that  of  the 
Stoics  ;  as  that  of  the  Epicureans  is  found  i  Cor. 
XV.  32.  Colossse  in  its  people,  location,  and 
history,  made  the  former  maxim  its  ruling  "phi- 
losophy "  (ii.  8) ;  as  Corinth  made  the  latter 
prevalent.  In  every  age  and  land  men  of  dif- 
ferent  temperaments  have  divided  into  these 


Abstinence-Preachers  Scientific.         569 

two  schools :  the  one  giving  way  to  sensual  in- 
dulgence because  God  has  planted  the  impulse  ; 
the  other  seeking  by  self-restraint  to  eradicate 
those  impulses  given  to  be  mastered,  not  to 
master  nor  to  be  eradicated.  Paul  and  John 
Divinely  inspired,  like  Moses,  David,  and  Solo- 
mon, taught  that  "the  carnal,"  or  fleshly,  the 
"psychical  "  or  animal  nature,  here  made  promi- 
nent (Col.  ii.  II,  20,  and  iii.  5,  23),  was  linked 
by  Christ  at  creation  (Gen.  ii.  7  ;  i  Cor.  xv.  47) 
to  the  "  spiritual  mind ";  a  nature  made  in  the 
presence  of  and  "  equal  to  the  angels,"  and  by 
the  Stoic,  "  worshipped  "  as  angelic  (Luke  xx. 
36;  Col.  ii.  18,  compare  Gen.  i.  26 ;  Job  xxxii. 
8;  xxxviii.  7;  Pro  v.  viii.  23,  31  ;  Rom.  vii.  23  ; 
I  John  ii.  15  to  17).  But  this  union  of  the  angelic 
and  the  animal  was  designed  that  the  redeemed 
nature  might,  by  the  struggle  for  victory,  gain 
glory  for  the  Creator.  Master  jurists,  like  Gro- 
tius  and  Webster,  have  traced  these  two  classes 
in  all  history ;  the  Stoic  in  Job's  friends,  the  Epi- 
curean in  Ecclesiastes,  and  so  down  the  pages  of 
human  records  ;  while  Paul's  very  quotation  in 
I  Cor.  XV.  32  is  found  Isaiah  xxii.  13.  The  vital 
fact  here  to  note  is,  that  both  these  maxims  have 
in  all  ages  been  associated  with  the  lure  of  the 
wine-cup  and  like  lusts;  the  Stoic,  in  Job  i.  18, 
19  ;  viii.  4  ;  xxi.  1 1 ;  (see  pp.  58,  59) ;  the  Epicu- 
rean, I  Cor.  V.  10;  vi.  10,  13;  ix.  25;  x.  7,  16, 


5  yo  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines, 

2i;  xi.  2  2,  29,  30;  while  the  wine-cup  is  in 
Paul's  thought,  Col.  ii.  16,  21.  Paul  does  not 
set  aside  this  maxim  of  human  duty ;  for  Sam- 
uel, Daniel,  John,  and  Timothy  followed  it.  He 
only  urges  that  Divine  "  renewal "  will  keep  them 
from  both  extremes,  in  the  safe  path  (Col.  iii.  i, 
10).  This  Clement  saw  to  be  Paul's  meaning 
(Strom,  ii.  t8;  vii.  6;  Paid,  ii.);  this  Tertullian 
and  Jerome  recognize  in  citation  and  transla- 
tions ;  this  Grotius,  citing  Clement  (Strom,  ii.  18), 
endorses ;  and  this  Poole,  citing  all  authorities, 
argues  at  length.  Certainly  one  that  heard 
this  maxim  cited  in  childhood  by  one  more  com- 
prehensive as  well  as  more  responsible  than 
modern  "  specialists,"  one  that  has  as  an  heir- 
loom, Poole's  "  Synopsis  Criticorum,"  with  its 
authorities  attesting  the  intelligence  of  the  lead- 
ers in  the  temperance  movement,  would  be  most 
guilty  if  silent  when  truth  is  struck  down  by  in- 
justice to  its  advocates. 

While  this  single  Divine  testimony  has  a  his- 
tory that  is  of  vital  moment,  the  network  of 
the  enemy's  web  interlocking  with  truth  more 
vital  must  be  cut ;  though  but  a  child  wields  the 
knife.  All  the  Christian  Fathers  cited  as  testi- 
fying of  Christ's  truth  as  to  wines,  from  Irenseus 
in  the  second  century  to  Augustine  in  the  fifth, 
were  called  to  oppose  two  leaders  in  the  per- 
version of  Christian  truth,  whose  influence  has 


Destructive  Bible  Critics  Wine-blinded.    571 

been  perpetuated  to  this  day.  Marcion,  a  profli- 
gate of  Asia  Minor,  whose  father,  a  disciple  of 
the  apostle  John,  had  the  trial  of  seeing  his 
son  excluded  from  the  Christian  Church,  stung 
by  shame  instead  of  penitence,  coming  to  Rome 
about  A.D.  140,  became  the  leader  in  destruct- 
ive Biblical  criticism.  At  the  same  time  there 
came  to  Rome  from  Alexandria,  Valentinus,  an 
imaginative  admirer  of  Brahminic  pantheism,  and 
of  the  Grecian  idealistic  evolution  theory  ad- 
vocated before  Socrates  by  Xenophanes,  lately 
cited  by  Haeckel,  the  extreme  evolutionist. 
These  opposites,  as  always,  were  attracted  and 
wedded ;  for  then,  as  now,  the  denial  of  the  in- 
tegrity of  the  New  Testament  Scriptures — the 
first  link  in  a  chain  of  clinching  logic  whose 
bond  no  mind  can  break  for  itself  or  for  others — 
leads  on  successively  to  loss  of  faith  in  all  the 
associated  truths  of  Natural  and  Revealed  re- 
ligion. Faith  is  lost,  first,  in  the  inspiration  of 
the  Scriptures;  second,  in  the  miracles  which 
attested  that  inspiration;  third,  in  the  Divine 
nature  of  Jesus,  who  wrought  those  miracles; 
fourth,  in  the  interposition  of  the  Divine  Spirit 
in  spiritual  regeneration;  fifth,  in  any  Divine 
interposition  in  nature  attesting  Providence  and 
justifying  prayer;  sixth,  in  any  original  creation 
bringing  into  being  the  mechanism  of  the  uni- 
verse, and  the  organization  of  plant  and  animal 


572  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

life ;  and  seventh,  in  the  existence  of  a  person- 
al Deity,  with  the  "  fancy  "  of  a  universe  evolved, 
without  a  germ,  by  the  action  of  latent,  mind- 
less forces.  Insensibly,  inevitably,  when  faith 
is  lost  in  the  first  of  this  chain  of  truths,  the 
whole  gives  way.  Marcion  and  Valentinus 
worked  together.  The  former  originated  the 
"  fancy,"  at  war  with  all  history,  that  the  Gospels 
could  not  be  harmonized ;  that  the  epistles  of 
James  and  Paul,  also  those  to  the  Romans  and 
the  Hebrews,  were  contradictory.  Hence,  the 
corrupted  manuscripts,  perpetuated  in  the  Egyp- 
tian "  uncials  ";  made  by  copyists  who  worked 
mechanically,  not  knowing  the  Greek  language  •, 
which  were  therefore  corrected  in  later  centuries 
by  Greek  scholars.  This  perversion  Origen  in 
the  third  and  Jerome  in  the  fifth  centuries  sought 
to  correct;  but  in  spite  of  the  efforts  of  the 
latter  it  lingered  and  became  perpetuated  in  the 
Latin  Vulgate.  The  historic  Greek  text,  how- 
ever, prevailed  with  scholars  even  amid  the  an- 
tagonisms of  the  Reformation ;  as  Reuss  in 
his  recent  collation  of  the  texts  of  Cardinal 
Ximenes  and  of  Erasmus  has  shown  ;  while 
Hefele,  who  was  at  Rome  in  1870  as  a  German 
bishop,  opposing  the  proposed  and  prevailing 
new  organization  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church, 
has  given  the  history  of  the  corruption  in  that 
Church.     It  began  with  the  new  and  forced  ac- 


Scieiice  Based  only  on  History,  5  73 

tion  of  the  Council  of  Trent,  April  8th,  1546, 
declaring  the  text  and  translation  of  the  Latin 
Vulgate  the  authoritative  standard.  A  decision 
like  this,  requiring  support,  its  vindication  was 
sought  by  Richard  Simon  ;  employed  to  prepare 
his  '•  Histoire  Critique  du  Texte  du  Nouveau 
Testament "  and  "  Nouvelles  Observations  sur 
le  Texte  et  les  Versions  du  Nouveau  Testa- 
ment," issued  at  Paris,  one  in  1689,  the  other  in 
1695.  Fully  replied  to  by  Bossuet  in  his  old 
age,  as  their  unscientific  method  had  before  been 
unveiled  by  Pascal,  the  master  in  mathematics 
and  logic  as  well  as  the  devout  Christian,  they 
were  taken  up  by  men  in  the  Lutheran  State- 
Church ;  vci  principle,  by  Bengal  in  1734,  and  in 
data  by  Griesbach  in  1775,  from  which  have  fol- 
lowed a  succession  of  New  Testament  Texts ; 
texts  not  historic,  but  ruled  by  individual  fancy  ; 
denounced,  when  suggested,  in  classic  criticism. 
Their  unscientific  basis  may  be  seen  in  these 
facts  as  to  one  of  the  last  collaters ;  stated  by 
Dr.  John  Todd,  of  New  Haven,  Conn.,  in  a  let- 
ter to  the  writer,  dated  June  7,  1882  :  "  Tisch- 
endorff  published  eight  editions  of  the  Greek 
Testament  during  his  life,  four  or  five  of  which, 
at  least,  may  be  regarded  as  so  many  distinct 
texts,  and  the  eighth  differs  from  the  seventh  in 
no  less  than  3,369  places."  Any  ordinary  read- 
er may  see  the  source  of  this  chaos  in  Tischen- 


574  '^^^  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

dorff's  edition  of  King  James'  English  version, 
issued  at  Leipsic,  Germany,  in  1869,  at  the  bot- 
tom of  whose  pages  are  given,  from  the  three 
principal  Egyptian  manuscripts,  their  variations 
not  only  from  the  historic  text  but  from  each 
other.  These  variations  of  the  three  manu- 
scripts number  from  twelve  to  twenty  on  every 
page  ;  permitting  the  issue  of  thousands  of  new 
editions  in  years  long  to  come. 

The  deeper  principle  that  has  prompted  this 
modern  anomaly  is  revealed  by  another  fact. 
In  July,  1656,  Spinoza,  a  Holland  Jew,  having 
become  a  pantheistic  evolutionist,  and  applying 
his  theory  to  the  books  of  Moses,  was  expelled 
from  the  synagogue  at  Amsterdam.  He  urged 
that  Moses  could  not  have  been  the  author  of 
the  documents  brought  together  in  his  five 
books  ;  since,  among  other  objections,  the  con- 
stant change  from  the  title  "  God  "  to  "  Lord 
God,"  and  the  statement  Ex.  vi.  3,  forbade  this 
authorship ;  while  the  civil  codes,  inserted  Ex. 
xxi.  to  xxiii.  and  Deut.  xii.  to  xxvi.,  were  made 
for  people  in  two  very  different  stages  of  na- 
tional progress.  It  was  significant  that  the 
same  Richard  Simon  who  had  been  employed 
as  a  destructive  critic  on  the  New  Testament, 
had  commended  himself  for  the  task  by  follow- 
ing up  Spinoza  in  his  "  Histoire  Critique  du 
Vieux  Testament,"  issued  at  Paris  in  1678.    The 


Wine  and  Religious  Scepticism.        575 

same  wedding  of  counterpart  principles,  first 
seen  in  the  second  century,  was  again  repeated 
in  the  following  of  Simon  by  a  speculative  class 
in  Germany.  Though  Simon  was  replied  to  by 
Jahn,  of  Vienna,  in  18 14,  in  a  work  translated 
and  issued  from  the  Episcopal  Theological 
Seminary  at  New  York  in  1827,  the  two  Ger- 
man schools  are  wedded  still. 

The  point  at  issue  now,  is  the  fact  that  the 
discussion  of  the  wines  used  and  appointed  by 
Christ,  has  in  every  century  been  associated 
with  the  discussion  of  these  fundamental  ques- 
tions ;  namely :  the  nature  and  mission  of  Christ 
and  the  integrity  of  the  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ment Scriptures  as  His  inspired  word.  This 
connection  is  on  the  face  of  the  writings  of  the 
whole  line  of  Christian  fathers ;  and  it  appears 
in  translations  and  comprehensive  commenta- 
ries at  the  age  of  the  Reformation,  traced  in 
former  pages  of  this  volume.  Its  present  inter- 
locking with  questions  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  appeared  in  the  counter  utterances  of 
Archbishop  Purcell  and  Cardinals  Manning  and 
McCloskey  heretofore  cited  (pp.  17,  172,  302); 
and  its  association  with  the  discussion  of  these 
several  questions  has  been  avowed  during  the 
discussion  of  the  last  five  years.  The  unscien- 
tific method  of  both  is  openly  and  equally 
avowed.     The  foundation  of  modern   destruct- 


57^  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

ive  Biblical  criticism  is  the  "higher"  as  opposed 
to  the  "  lower  criticism  ";  which  consists  of  the 
individual  fancy  from  "  internal  evidence  "  seen 
by  a  single  scholastic  student  of  the  nineteenth 
century,  as  opposed  to  historic  testimony  com- 
ing from  a  whole  line  of  contemporaries  and  suc- 
cessors of  the  writers.  The  sole  ground,  as 
Agassiz  following  Aristotle  declared,  and  as 
Darwin  allowed,  for  pantheistic  evolution  is 
"  imagination  "  based  on  a  "  fancied  "  analogy, 
which  individual  imagination  is  opposed  to  ob- 
servations attested  by  ages  of  experience  ;  as 
shown  by  Cuvier  in  the  French  Academy  in  1830. 
This  was  verified  in  Comte,  author  of  the  mod- 
ern "  Positive  Philosophy,"  who  in  his  "  Cours 
de  Philosophic  Positive,"  published  when  forty 
years  of  age,  had  found  no  "  positive "  data 
indicating  that  religious  truth  had  facts  which 
made  it  an  inductive  science ;  but,  who,  awakened 
afterwards  to  this  reality  by  the  death  of  a 
Christian  lady  to  whom  he  was  to  have  been 
married,  was  led  to  accept  religion  as  the  crown- 
ing "  science,"  calling  for  an  invention  by  "  art " 
of  forms  of  worship ;  when  that  personal  wor- 
ship, the  suggestion  of  his  "imagination,"  took 
form  in  a  prayer  addressed  to  the  spirit  of  his 
sainted  betrothed,  offered  daily  by  himself  and 
his  adopted  daughter,  and  published  as  a  model 
in  his  last  series  on  the  "  Positive  Philosophy." 


Pasteur  at  Edinburgh.  577 

The  decision  as  to  the  chemical  law  and  the  an- 
cient history  of  "  unfermented  wines  "  has  been  a 
"  speculation  ";  formed  without  consulting  "  ex- 
perts "  in  wine-growing  countries  as  to  modern 
facts,  or  as  to  the  interpretation  of  Hebrew  and 
Arabic,  Greek  and  Roman,  Rabbinic  and  Patris- 
tic writers. 

It  was  significant  when  a  few  weeks  ago,  at 
the  tri-centenary  of  Edinburgh  University  such 
men  as  Pasteur,  Helmholtz,  and  Virchow  were 
invited  to  be  present  and  bear  testimony.  That 
University  was  founded  when  the  fruits  of  the 
Council  of  Trent  were  beginning  to  be  realized ; 
when  the  events  which  in  Germany  led  to  the 
"thirty  years'  war"  were  maturing;  when  the 
massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew,  in  France,  was 
fresh  in  mind  ;  when  Knox  had  just  passed,  with 
others,  through  the  bloody  struggle  that  fixed  in 
Scotland  the  reign  of  Spiritual  Christianity  and 
the  rule  of  God's  word  as  inspired.  Those  were 
consecrated  foundations  laid  at  Edinburgh  in 
1584.  But,  for  years  the  tidal  wave,  raised  at 
Rome  in  the  second  century,  with  its  double  un- 
dermining, has  threatened  even  the  rock  of  the 
Scottish  citadel.  It  meant  much  when  three 
men  such  as  these  were  called  from  France 
and  Germany  to  Scotland.  Pasteur,  raised 
to  his  recent  honor  in  the  French  Academy 
for  his  profound  researches  into  the  laws  of 
25 


57^  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

ferment  for  German  brewers  and  French  vint- 
ners that  he  might  devise  the  method  of  its  ar- 
rest,— Pasteur,  one  of  a  body  of  scientists,  sat- 
irized by  Haeckell  in  his  "  History  of  Creation," 
as  incompetent  to  comprehend  "  evolution  prop- 
er," and  more  lately  ridiculed  by  Renan  in  his 
"  Recollections  of  my  Youth,"  as  incapable  of 
appreciating  "  German  exegesis," — Pasteur,  the 
echo  of  Cato  and  Pliny  and  the  interpreter  of 
Egyptian  sculptures  as  to  the  mode  of  securing 
wines  free  from  ferment, — Pasteur,  worthily  for 
the  age,  represented  alike  French  Science  and 
demonstrative  religious  conviction.  Helmholtz, 
the  able  analyzer  of  the  laws  of  light,  Pasteur's 
predecessor  in  searching  for  the  law  of  ferment, 
— Helmholtz  represented  Germanscience  prop- 
er ;  and  he  declared,  for  "  German  "  science,  that 
"  false  rationalism  "  was  its  misguiding  tendency. 
Virchow,  author  of  the  theory  of  animal  cell- 
formations,  and  successful  discoverer  of  the  law 
of  arrest  for  diseases  caused  by  animalcule-germs 
— Virchow,  now  familiar  to  Americans  as  de- 
fender of  international  integrity,  both  in  com- 
merce, in  science  and  in  religion, — Virchow  de- 
clared that  "the  theory  of  evolution,"  without 
the  intervention  of  a  Divine  Originator,  "  has  no 
scientific  basis."  It  was  significant  that  the  dem- 
onstrator of  the  law  of  securing  unfermented 
wines  represented  France  at  Scotland's  review. 


Rule  of  Faith  or  Fancy.  579 

That  science  must  triumph.     The  French  his- 
tory of  that  science  must  rule  interpretation  ; 
and  for  this  reason.     All  "  truth,"  material  and 
spiritual — all  interests,  domestic,  social,  civil,  po- 
litical, and  religious,  are  linked.     So  Aristotle — 
"  father   of   natural   history,"  as  Agassiz   ever 
avowed — father  of  Logic,  as  men  of  all  ages  have 
admitted — father  of  comprehensive  ethical  and 
political   science,    as    Montesquieu   in    France, 
Blackstone  and  Whevvell  in  England,  and  Chip- 
man,  Kent,  and  others  in  America  have  declared 
— Aristotle  taught  that  there  are  //tree  sources 
of  impressions  which  men  rely  upon  as  knowl- 
edge   beyond    the    testimony   of    the    senses. 
First,  individual /an cy,  "phantasia,"  is  naturally 
relied  on  by  specialists  and  theorists  from  Plato 
down;  second,  opinion,  "  hypolepsis,"  by  men  who 
study  facts  and  who,  by  induction,  infer  princi- 
ples ;  thirdf/ait/i,  "pistis,"  the  impulse  of  men  that 
have  "  hope  "  and  musl  act,  the  best  "  evidence" 
that  things  as  yet  unseen  are  real,  and  the  knowl- 
edge that  is  effectual  in  its  end  because  "  faith  " 
makes  a  man  faithful  to  himself  and  also  "  works 
by   love"  for   others.     This  "faith,"  Aristotle 
found  to  be  the  starting-point  in  all  reasoning ;  the 
only  ground  of  mathematical  as  of  metaphysical 
"  axioms,"  or  truths  accepted  as  rational  ;  and 
by  its  guidance  he  became  the  intellectual  leader 
in  every  department  of  truth  in  his  own  and 


580  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

other  ages.  Paul,  after  defining  "  faith,"  found 
it  to  have  been  the  guide  of  men  in  the  Old 
Testament  history  beginning  with  Abel ;  the 
"  knowledge  "  of  Christ,  not  fancied,  but  histor- 
ic, beginning  with  his  appearance  in  human  form, 
as  God;  subjecting  himself  before  he  made  man 
to  all  He  had  appointed  for  man  ;  Himself  "the 
truth."  All  "  science,"  or  systematized  knowl- 
edge, rests  on  "faith,"  in  natural  law  as  control- 
ling man's  destiny ;  in  men,  amid  varied  relations, 
as  securing  a  happy  life  ;  in  God  and  His  word 
as  a  power  to  rule  both  nature  and  men.  Sci- 
ence is  applied  in  art ;  both  are  unified  in  philos- 
ophy ;  religion  is  reconciliation  to  philosophy  ; 
and  the  religion  of  Christ  is  "  the  truth  "  because 
it  does  "  reconcile  "  men  and  angels  to  God,  to 
their  fellows,  to  universal  law.  If  any  subject 
in  the  range  of  natural  and  revealed  law,  in  its 
intensely  vital  importance  to  man  in  his  domes- 
tic, social,  national,  and  religious  relations,  has 
beeii  and  can  be  practically  and  theoretically 
"  known,"  it  is  "  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines." 
The  vital  practical  result  of  this  unscientific 
method — this  ignoring  of  history — is  the  loss  to 
modern  scholarship  of  the  richest  treasures  of 
ancient  experimental  science  ;  from  which  fatal 
result  of  her  disastrous  Revolution,  so  in  con- 
trast to  the  American,  France  is,  to-day,  through 
her  Academicians,  happily  recovered.      As  Py- 


Ancient  Practical  Science  Verified.      581 

thag-oras,  before  Euclid  wrote,  had  practically 
introduced  into  Geometry  the  analysis  of  Des- 
cartes, and  into  Arithmetic  the  methods  of  mod- 
ern Algebra  and  Calculus — as  Aristotle  sur- 
passed Montesquieu  in  political,  and  Agassiz 
in  embryological  inductive  conclusions,  so  the 
Natural  History  of  Pliny  records  facts  as  to  the 
means  of  preventing  ferment  ia  wine-making, 
which  Pasteur  and  his  associates  are  gradually 
repeating  by  the  guidance  of  chemical  analysis. 
In  Africa,  Greece,  Italy  (pp.  144,  390),  ferment 
was  arrested  and  alcohol-product  prevented  by 
the  use  of  "gypsum"  or  sulphate  of  lime,  ot 
"bitumen,  resin,  and  pitch,"  of  "marble"  or 
carbonate  of  lime,  of  "  chalk,  Grecian  clay,"  and 
even  of  "salt"  or  chloride  of  sodium.  As  to 
the  first,  Pliny  describes  at  length  four  kinds 
of  "sulfur"  (Nat.  Hist.,  xxxv.  15)  ;  the  "  vivum," 
or  crude  flower  of  sulphur,  used  by  physicians  ; 
and  the  third  employed  to  cleanse  and  soften 
wool.  The  efficacy  of  hot  sulphur  springs  is 
described,  while  he  adds :  "  It  has  a  place  in 
religious  rites  (religionibus)  for  purifying  (ad 
expiandas)  houses  by  fumigation."  Among  the 
Romans  religion  and  science  were  always  linked ; 
and  this,  as  the  Christian  fathers  all  affirm,  pre- 
pared the  way  for  the  world's  Redeemer  ;  whose 
main  mission  was  to  enable  men  "to  fulfil  the 
law,"  because,  like  David  and  Paul,  his  follow- 


582  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

ers  came  to  possess  a  "  new  spirit,"  which  made 
them  long  in  all  things  to  keep  the  Divine  law. 
Before  Pliny,  Virgil  speaks  of  ''sulfura  viva" 
(Geor.  iii.  449)  as  the  cure  for  diseases  of  sheep, 
and  of  altars  that  "  smoke  with  sulphur  "  (^n. 
ii.  693),  as  the  sign  of  Divine  propitiation.  The 
Greeks,  from  Homer,  note  the  same,  calling 
sulphur  "theion,"  with  a  network  of  cog- 
nates, from  "  thuo,"  to  sacrifice ;  Dioscorides 
(v.  124),  treating  of  its  healing  virtue;  and 
Homer  citing  often  (II.  xvi.  228 ;  Odys.  xxii. 
481,  493),  its  expiatory  or  purifying  efficacy. 
With  sulphur  Pliny  directly  associates  (xxxv.  15) 
"bitumen"  and  its  kindred  elements,  resin, 
pitch,  etc.,  stating  its  ''near  (vicina)  nature"  to 
sulphur.  And  now  modern  science,  approaching 
constantly  the  analysis  of  chemical  action,  finds 
alcohol  composed  of  carbon  and  hydrogen,  with 
a  less  proportion  of  oxygen ;  it  traces  the  strong 
affinities  of  sulphur,  present  in  gypsum,  for  both 
oxygen  and  hydrogen,  as  also  the  action  of  all 
compounds  of  lime  ;  and  modern  French  science 
is  utilizing,  one  after  another,  all  these  in  secur- 
ing unalcoholic  wines  (pp.  355,  393).  Yet  more  ; 
the  Latin  "  bitumen,"  the  Greek  "  asphaltos," 
in  all  its  modern  forms  of  pitch,  turpentine,  tar, 
resin,  naphtha,  kerosene,  is  found  to  be  mainly 
composed,  like  alcohol,  of  carbon  and  hydrogen, 
with  oxygen  as  subordinate ;  and  all  these  are 


GocTs  Word  Attested  by  Science.      583 

used  as  disinfectants.  All  the  supposed  or  actual 
products  of  chemical  action  in  the  articles  named 
by  Pliny,  whether  carbonic  acid,  sulphurous 
acid,  or  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  would  appro- 
priate the  elements  which  constitute  alcohol, 
and  also  take  up  the  free  oxygen,  whose  pres- 
ence promotes  alcoholic  ferment ;  the  carbonic 
acid  would  escape  in  effervescence ;  the  sulphur- 
ous acid  or  sulphuretted  hydrogen  would  also 
escape,  as  in  marshes  and  from  the  volcanic 
lands  of  Italy ;  or  if  the  sulphurous  acid,  by 
taking  on  free  oxygen,  became  sulphuric  acid,  its 
combination  with  the  lime  would  be  natural. 
No  logical  mind  can  blind  itself  to  the  fact  that 
practical  "  science  "  ruled  the  ancient  Egyp- 
tians, Greeks,  and  Romans  in  the  use  of  sulphur 
and  bitumen  in  correcting,  as  they  used  oil  in 
preventing  ferment  in  wines. 

The  inspired  word  of  God,  then,  certainly 
should  not  be  "  handled  deceitfully,"  even  if 
classic  literature  be  assailed  by  destructive 
criticism  to  hide  Divine  truth  as  to  wines.  To 
designate  the  "  poison  "  in  wines,  "  Moses  and 
the  prophets,"  cited  by  Christ,  used  the  word 
"chemah"  (Deut.  xxxii.  ii\  Hos.  vii.  5);  a 
noun  derived  from  the  verb  "  chamah,"  akin  to 
"  chemed,"  red  wine  (Isa.  xxvii.  2) ;  also  to 
"  chemer,"  pure  blood  of  the  grapes  (Deut. 
xxxii.  14),  and  to  "  ch'mar"  (Ezra  vi.  9 ;  Dan.  v. 


584  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wi7ies. 

4),  wine  offered  in  sacrifice ;  and  again  to 
"chemar,"  slime  (Gen.  xi.  3),  and  "  chomer," 
mortar  (Gen.  xi.  3,  and  Exod,  i.  14).  As  this 
kinship  of  terms  in  the  Hebrew  is  illustrated  by 
a  like  kinship  in  the  Greek  of  the  Septuagint 
version,  as  also  the  like  nature  and  expiatory  re- 
lation of  sulphur  and  of  bitumen  in  Moses'  nar- 
rative (Gen.  xiv.  10,  and  xix.  24),  in  Christ's 
teachings  (Luke  xvii.  29,  30),  and  in  John's 
"  Revelation  of  Jesus  Christ "  (Rev.  xx.  6,  10, 
14,  15  ;  xxi.  6-8),  who  can  blind  himself  to  the 
Divine  teaching?  Certainly  all  God's  laws,  for 
earth  and  heaven,  for  body  and  spirit,  are  in- 
dissolubly  linked;  "the  truth"  centres  in  its 
Author,  alike  man's  Creator  and  Redeemer ; 
and  no  follower,  surely  no  herald  of  that  Re- 
deemer is  "  true  and  faithful,"  who  does  not 
seek  till  he  finds,  and  who  does  not  accept  when 
he  finds  it,  the  "  Divine  law  as  to  wines." 


THE  WRITERS  PERSONAL  RELATIONS  TO  RECENT 
DISCUSSIONS  UPON  "THE  DIVINE  LAW  AS 
TO    WINES." 

In  the  volume  of  326  pages,  covering,  in  con- 
densed yet  logical  and  verified  scientific  and  his- 
toric statement,  the  whole  field  open  for  investi- 
gation as  to  the  law  of  wines,  less  space  far  was 
given  to  personal  experience  than  is  found  in 


Ancestral  View  of  Three  Parallels.      585 

Canon  Farrar's  brief  pamphlet  (pp.  7  to  9,  comp. 
303  to  305).  In  the  first  Supplement  of  130 
pages  (pp.  327  to  456),  embodying  the  French 
scientific,  the  Roman  historic  testimonies,  and  re- 
plying to  the  then  developed  literary  objections, 
no  personal  allusions  were  introduced,  except  to 
Dr.  Moore's  suppositions,  doubtless  honest,  as 
to  the  "little  learning"  of  the  writer  (pp.  336 
and  342).  The  private  as  well  as  public  methods 
resorted  to  to  weaken  the  force  of  Divine  truth 
by  the  fancied  weakness,  at  some  subordinate 
points,  of  its  advocate,  demands  the  following 
statement. 

The  allusion  to  three  parallels,  on  page  5,  was 
prompted  by  the  fact  that  from  early  childhood 
profound  and  full  discussions  of  questions  now 
settled  were  made  familiar  by  a  maternal  grand- 
father, and  a  father  whose  blindness  required  that 
his  youngest  son  act  as  his  reader.  That  grand- 
father was  the  fifth  in  descent  from  a  line  of 
practical  Puritans ;  the  first  of  whom  owned  one 
of  the  first  wharves  built  in  Boston.  In  1 774  that 
grandfather  was  a  civil  and  then  a  military  offi- 
cer ;  who  as  such  was  a  thorough  student  of  the 
British  Constitution,  reviewed  in  Blackstone's 
Commentaries,  which  appeared  in  four  volumes 
at  London,  from  1765  to  '69.  Discriminating 
between  the  unconstitutional  Revolution  which 
beheaded  Charles  I.  in  1649,  and  the  constitu- 


586  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

tional  Revolution  which  deposed  James  II.  in 
1689,  he  hailed  Burke's  speech  of  March  22, 

1775,  in  the  British  Parliament;  which  proved 
that  the  Americans  were  true  to  the  British  Con- 
stitution in  their  resistance  to  the  measures  of 
Lord  North.  Called  in  1775  to  aid  in  the  sup- 
port of  aged  negro  slaves  emancipated  by  the 
will  of  his  grandfather,  the  publication,  July  22, 

1776,  in  the  Boston  Gazette,  of  the  Declaration 
of  Independence,  with  speeches  at  ratification 
meetings,  followed  immediately  by  the  adver- 
tisement of  a  runaway  slave,  led  to  questions 
as  to  the  relation  in  that  Declaration  of  the  two 
words  "  liberty  "  and  "  equality."  Their  conflict, 
rather  than  harmony,  in  the  French  Revolution 
which  soon  followed,  analyzed  by  Burke  in 
1 790,  elaborated  by  Guizot  in  his  "  Memoirs  of 
my  own  Time,"  issued  from  1856  to  1868,  veri- 
fied in  the  American  legislation  of  the  past 
twenty  years — this  distinction  was  guarded  in 
the  American  "  Declaration  "  of  1776  and  in  the 
American  Constitution  of  1787.  A  free-thinker, 
though  reverent,  in  religion,  the  example  of 
Rhode  Island  led  him  in  1774  to  seek  legal  per- 
mission to  organize,  and  in  1775  to  give  him- 
self to  the  support  of,  a  church  founded  on  the 
principle  of  religious  "liberty";  though  religious 
"equality,"  granted  in  1789  in  all  the  other 
States  of  the  Union,  in  his  own  State  was  not 


Ancestral  View  of  Liberty  and  Equality,  587 

secured  till  the  year  of  his  death,  1833.  His 
rare  virtue,  his  presidency  in  the  first  Anti-slav- 
ery and  Temperance  Societies  organized  in  the 
United  States,  his  special  attachment  to  his 
favorite  grandson,  for  whose  education  at  home 
and  abroad  he  left  provision,  inspired  a  respect 
which  on  social,  political,  and  religious  questions 
has  at  once  prompted,  secured,  and  promoted  a 
like  respect  in  all  subsequent  associations. 

The  writer's  father,  sixth  in  line  from  one  of 
the  first  Pilgrim  settlers,  at  seventeen  a  devout 
member  of  Roger  Williams'  Church  at  Provi- 
dence, R.  I.,  President  of  the  Massachusetts 
Baptist  Convention  more  years  than  any  other 
incumbent,  was  comprehensive  and  conservative 
on  all  social,  national,  and  religious  issues. 
Chosen,  in  18 19,  to  represent  vital  principles,  a 
member  of  the  Convention  which  set  off  Maine 
as  a  State  in  counterpoise  to  Missouri,  one  of 
the  Committee  of  five  with  Daniel  Webster  as 
Chairman  to  report  on  a  provision  for  religious 
"equality,"  every  question  of  the  State  and  Na- 
tional Government,  every  demand  of  Christian 
and  Church  fellowship  was  mastered.  His  se- 
rene old  age,  spent  with  his  son  in  Washing- 
ton, D.  C,  from  1844  to  1861,  made  his  modest- 
ly stated  convictions  to  be  appreciated  by  each 
successive  President,  on  whom  he  often  called ; 
till  gradually,  unnerving  anxiety  amid  disunion, 


588  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

and  finally  the  shock  of  the  cannonade  of  the 
first  battle,  finished  a  course  whose  seed  sown 
could  not  fail  of  a  worthy  harvest. 

The  principles  of  Wayland,  that  "right  and 
duty  "  depend  on  relations  established  in  nature 
by  man's  Creator,  and  that  individual  "liberty" 
to  employ  and  improve  one's  powers  is  consist- 
ent with  "  inequality  of  condition,"  principles  im- 
bibed in  youth,  have  since  been  recognized  as  the 
analysis  of  Aristotle,  applied  to  domestic,  social, 
civil,  political,  and  religious  relations.  Cicero 
traced  these  principles  as  at  the  foundation  of 
the  Constitutional  Government  of  the  Roman 
Republic,  administered  by  select  representa- 
tives. Montesquieu,  writing  under  Louis 
XIV.,  found  them  embodied  in  the  English 
Government  inaugurated  in  1689,  the  year  of 
his  birth ;  and  he  wrought  them  out  in  his 
master-work,  "  Esprit  des  Lois."  Burke,  under 
George  III.,  applied  them  to  the  American 
Revolution ;  Chipman,  of  Vermont,  unfolded 
them  during  Washington's  administration  ;  and 
De  Tocqueville,  of  France,  in  his  "  Democracy  in 
America,"  issued  1835-40,  traced  their  balanced 
rule.  Whewell,  of  England,  who  brought  out, 
from  1833  to  1863,  the  history  of  "Inductive 
Science  "  as  applied  to  physical  and  moral  law, 
has  shown  the  oneness,  in  their  advanced  de- 
velopment, of  English  and  American  principles 


Aristotle  on  Social  Relations,  589 

applied  to  domestic,  social,  civil,  political,  and 
religious  relations ;  and  this  he  has  done  with 
the  strict  scientific  induction  which  Agassiz, 
following  Aristotle,  applied  to  the  history  of 
plant  and  animal  organisms.  In  his  "  Memoirs  " 
of  his  "  Own  Times,"  in  the  chapters  on  his 
work  as  head  of  the  Bureau  of  Public  Educa- 
tion, four  years  before  he  became  Prime  Min- 
ister under  Louis  Philippe,  Guizot  describes 
the  reaction  led  by  Daunon  ;  when,  from  the 
extreme  of  "  liberty,"  which  permitted  every 
parent  to  educate,  or  not,  his  children,  and  which 
allowed  teachers  to  teach  what  they  pleased,  nat- 
ural revolution  went  to  the  other  extreme  of 
equality  ;  Government  compelling  all  schools  to 
be  of  the  same  grade,  for  all  pupils  of  the  same 
age,  and  allowing  no  school  to  teach  anything 
above  the  grade. 

In  domestic  relations,  husband,  wife,  children, 
have  the  right  to  "  freedom  "  of  employment,  en- 
joyment, and  improvement ;  with  "  inequality," 
or  rather  variety,  "of  condition";  the  term 
"hypotassO,"  indicating  copartnership  in  Aris- 
totle's and  Paul's  writings  (Eph.  v.  21,  22),  al- 
ways used  in  indicating  the  relation  of  husband 
and  wife  ;  while  "  hypakouo,"  obedience,  is  used 
for  children.  In  social  relations,  servants  and 
employes,  be  they  lifelong  slaves,  or  bound  dur- 
ing minorage,  or  hired  for  the  year  or  day,  have 


5^  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

rights  reciprocal  to  those  of  masters  and  em- 
ployers. The  master,  like  a  father,  as  Aristotle 
taught,  is  bound  to  seek  the  "improvement" 
and  future  emancipation  of  his  slave  as  truly  as 
of  his  child  (Polit,  I.,  13)  ;  a  principle  misstated 
by  Paley,  when,  in  1785,  in  his  "  Moral  and  Po- 
litical Philosophy,"  he  arrayed  the  British  against 
the  American  principle  and  polity ;  the  princi- 
ple, however,  cited  aright  by  Bancroft  (U.  S. 
Hist.,  I.,  xv).  This  practical  view  was  recognized 
by  Wayland  in  his  discussion  with  Fuller  in  1845, 
and  was  incorporated  into  his  "  Moral  Science" 
(p.  214)  in  1857.  This  principle  of  profound 
truth  and  right  underlies  servitude  under  the 
Hebrew  patriarchs  and  in  the  Hebrew  State ; 
and  it  is  stated  by  Paul  in  Aristotle's  words, 
"to  dikaion  kai  ten  isoteta,"  the  just  and  the 
equity  (Coll.  iv.  i).  In  «W/ relations,  "all  are 
equal  in  law";  protection  by  law  being  ahke 
the  right  of  male  and  female,  child  and  servant, 
citizen  and  foreigner. 

In  the  two  political  relations,  that  of  citizens 
to  the  Government,  and  that  of  States  in  their 
union  to  each  other,  reason  certainly  has  ruled 
history  in  establishing  these  principles.  First, 
the  right  to  have  a  voice  in  making  government, 
whatever  subordinate  principles  may  be  and 
have  been  urged,  clearly  implies  the  duty  of 
sharing   in   the  maintenance   of   that    Govern- 


Right  in  National  Union.  591 

ment.  Hence  the  capacity  to  "bear  arms"  has 
been  universally  recognized  as  an  element  of 
"political  equality."  Second,  in  ancient  and 
modern  union  of  States,  as  in  Greece  and  Swit- 
zerland, the  right  of  withdrawal  from  a  com- 
pact with  other  States,  and  the  right  of  revolu- 
tionizing the  Government  of  any  one  State,  call 
for  discrimination.  The  right  of  revolution 
rests  on  three  facts :  first,  that  the  Government 
Jbas  violated  its  trust ;  second,  that  all  constitu- 
tional means  for  redress  have  failed  ;  third,  that 
the  movement  for  revolution  is  demanded  not 
by  a  class  but  by  the  people  at  large.  The  right 
to  withdraw  from  a  compact  between  States,  in- 
volves three  vital  issues :  first,  that  the  parties 
to  the  compact  should  be  agreed  as  to  its  disso- 
lution ;  or  second,  that  the  penalty  always  fol- 
lowing disputed  withdrawal  should  follow ; 
while,  third,  the  withdrawal  must  not  be  on  a 
principle  which  will  prove  suicidal  in  any  subse- 
quent necessary  union.  Time  permits  now  that 
calm  review  which  justifies  the  balanced  convic- 
tions which  ruled  intelligent  minds  and  appreci- 
ative hearts  in  generations  past  in  our  country. 
It  was  a  balanced,  as  well  as  intelligent  view, 
that  for  three  successive  generations  has  regard- 
ed these  several  suggestions  as  alike  erroneous  : 
first,  the  attempt  of  Genet,  under  Washington, 
to  form  a  French  Republic  reaching  from  Can- 


592  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

ada  through  the  Mississippi  Valley  to  New  Or- 
leans ;  second,  the  scheme  under  Jefferson  of  a 
Southwestern  Empire  including  Mexico  ;  third, 
the  suggestion  for  the  revival  of  the  old  con- 
federacy of  "The  United  Colonies  of  New 
England,"  under  Madison ;  fourth,  the  move- 
ment for  resistance  to  the  tariff,  under  Jackson  ; 
and  fifth,  the  acts  of  secession  which  preceded 
and  followed  the  election  of  Lincoln.  It  marked 
an  era  in  the  progress  of  social  right  in  Christian 
civilization,  when,  during  a  war  of  four  years, 
which  ended  in  the  erAancipation  of  four  mil- 
lions of  slaves,  such  had  been  the  fidelity  of 
masters  and  the  attachment  of  servants  that  not 
an  instance  of  revolt  or  insubordination  occurred. 
It  attested  the  balance  of  political  and  relig- 
ious concientiousness,  when,  at  the  close  of  the 
war,  such  had  been  the  previous  committal  to 
unsound  principle  in  former  State  connections, 
alike  of  the  chief  executive,  judiciary,  and  legisla- 
tive leaders,  that  conviction  for  treason  could  not 
have  been  consistently  secured.  It  was  the  most 
impressive  of  testimonies  that  in  national,  as  in 
Church  and  family  differences,  both  parties  at 
last  form  all  the  closer  union  ;  because,  they  have 
learned  that  lack  of  concession  proves  the  party 
that  has  nothing  to  concede  to  have  been  the 
party  chiefly  in  the  wrong. 

The  protracted  struggle' in  the  writer's  native 


Religious  Liberty  and  Equality.        593 

State — a  State  most  honored  in  other  respects — 
the  struggle  continued  till  1833  for  religious 
"  equality,"  established  at  least  this  principle  : 
that,  while  under  State-Church  Constitutions  Re- 
ligious "equality"  can  not  exist,  and  therefore  can 
not  be  claimed  as  a  principle  of  "  international 
law,"  the  right  to  religious  "  liberty"  existed  un- 
der Roman  law,  and  it  sustained  the  founder 
and  the  great  apostle  of  the  Christian  faith.  It 
gave  way  at  Rome  only  when  the  Druidical  con- 
trol, described  in  Britain  and  Germany  by  Cae- 
sar and  Tacitus,  came  into  the  imperial  city  with 
the  Gothic  rulers.  Religious  liberty  has  main- 
tained its  sway  as  a  precedent  in  the  Eastern 
Empire  ;  and  it  was  incorporated  alike  into  the 
Mohammedan  Empire,  which  superseded,  and 
into  the  Russian  which  adopted  that  succession. 
Its  recognition  is  now  so  universally  granted 
that  this  statement  as  to  the  three  parallels,  on  p. 
5,  is  justified  because  realized  :  "  Ruling  minds 
in  Europe  and  America  are  now  agreed  that  sta- 
ble and  efficient  government  must  be  constitu- 
tional ;  that  servitude  must  be  minorage  guardi- 
anship ;  and  that  religious  worship  must  be 
free." 

Engaged  at  Washington,  D.  C.,from  1842  to 
187 1  as  Christian  pastor  and  college  teacher, 
the  first  class  instructed  was  one  of  colored  stu- 
dents for  the  ministry  gathered  in  1843  J  ^"^'  "P 


594  '^^^  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

to  1884,  in  Washington  and  New  York,  stu- 
dents of  every  European  nationality  including 
Grecian  and  Russian,  of  three  Asiatic  Empires, 
Turkey,  India,  and  China,  and  native  as  well  as 
American  negroes  have  been  "  studied,"  as  well 
as  trained  as  students.  Called  to  act  with  the 
Secretary  of  the  American  Colonization  Society 
in  arranging  for  the  return  of  recaptured  slaves 
to  Africa,  when  the  slave-trade  was  effectually 
broken  up  under  Pierce's  administration,  to 
counsel  with  Roberts,  the  first  President  of  the 
Republic  and  of  Liberia  College,  as  to  educa- 
tion for  the  colored  people  in  Africa  as  well  as 
after  the  war  in  America,  the  grateful  esteem 
ever  won  has  been  a  sufficient  reward  for  years 
of  disinterested  watch-care.  After  the  Church 
divisions,  which  began  in  1845,  mentioned  in 
the  United  States  Senate  alike  by  Webster  and 
Calhoun  as  ominous,  a  place  on  the  Mission 
and  Education  Boards  in  both  sections  was  act- 
ively filled  until  the  war.  As  hearers  and  inti- 
mates for  years,  were  leaders  of  three  eras  of  the 
early  times.  Among  these  were  Duff  Green,  the 
promoter  under  Monroe  of  the  Missouri  com- 
promise, and  secret  diplomatic  agent  of  many 
succeeding  administrations ;  also  Amos  Ken- 
dall, the  maker  of  Jackson's  administration,  as 
well  as  of  the  Post-office  Department  and  of 
Morse's  success.    Of  the  second  era  were  leaders 


Statesmen  in  War 'Times,  595 

in  ten  administrations,  and  Cabinet  officers  of 
five  ;  with  Senators  and  Representatives  of  lead- 
ing Northern  and  Southern  States;  Graham,  of 
North  Carolina,  as  Senator  and  Secretary  ;  Cobb, 
of  Georgia,  as  Representative  and  Secretary ; 
Marcy  as  Secretary  of  War  under  Polk,  and  of 
State,  under  Pierce ;  Collamer,  Corwin,  and 
Guthrie,  Cabinet  officers  in  successive  adminis- 
trations ;  Sumner,  of  Massachusetts,  as  guest 
and  Davis,  of  Mississippi,  as  intimate  in  sickness  ; 
Douglass,  the  repealer,  and  Houston,  the  defend- 
er of  the  Missouri  compromise  ;  Dodge,  and 
Doolittle,  and  Harris,  as  Senators,  with  numerous 
Northern  and  Southern  members  of  the  House  ; 
all  of  whom  sat  as  Christian  men  in  the  same 
seats  ;  religious  differences  being  unknown  up  to 
the  war.  Among  men  of  the  third,  and  still  ex- 
isting era,  were  Curry  and  Garfield ;  alike  patri- 
otic, trusted,  and  faithful  in  every  relation.  When 
the  war  came,  enjoying  unlimited  confidence  on 
both  sides,  visits  for  Christian  ends,  transmission 
of  missionary  letters,  of  moneys  and  of  fami- 
lies through  the  lines  was  cordially  granted  ;  pa- 
roles from  scores  of  conscientious  Christian  men 
were  accepted  in  lieu  of  oaths  of  allegiance  ;  the 
flag,  dishonored  by  being  placed  over  churches, 
was  prohibited  for  such  use,  when  it  was  seen  to 
be  a  resort  of  self-interest  more  than  of  patri- 
otic sentiment,  while,  too,  its  intrusion  was  in 
violation  of  the  principle  separating  Church  and 


596  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

State.  Most  of  all,  the  distinction  between  re- 
ligious "equality,"  excluded  where  there  is  a 
State-Church,  and  religious  "liberty,"  in  princi- 
ple allowed  in  all  nations  and  ages, — a  principle, 
therefore,  of  international  "  courtesy," — was  so 
urged  through  the  State  Department  in  1855  as 
to  control  the  cabinets  of  Prussia  and  Sweden  ; 
and  it  was  so  commended  in  1873-4  to  both  the 
Russian  and  Turkish  ambassadors,  urged  as  it 
was  upon  the  latter  by  Bancroft,  the  diplomat 
as  well  as  historian,  that  it  became  the  Court 
rule  in  Russia,  and  was  admitted  as  valid  by  the 
Turkish  Minister. 

More  grateful,  however,  in  review  than  all 
these  memories,  is  this  fact :  the  assured  convic- 
tion, received  in  childhood  from  Stuart  as  to 
wines,  became  the  rule  of  life.  In  college,  as 
pastor,  as  College  President,  as  guide  to  foreign 
travellers,  as  successful  counsellor  of  cabinet  offi- 
cers under  five  administrations,  and,  yet  more, 
as  lecturer  for  years  to  sceptics  in  Washington, 
D.  C,  and  for  eight  years  on  varied  topics  be- 
fore the  Liberal  Club  in  New  York  City,  of 
which  Horace  Greeley  was  President — the  dear- 
est of  these  memories  is  this  :  that  "  the  grace," 
if  not  "  the  truth,"  of  which  Christ  was  "/«//," 
was  thus  commended  in  every  association  of 
private  and  of  public  life.  That  conviction  led, 
in  the  city  of  Washington,  to  an  early  accept- 
ance of  the  result  realized   by  Christ  and  His 


Statesmen  and  Wine-Drinking.        597 

forerunner  in  reform.  Even  doomed  women,  as 
well  as  men,  wedded  to  the  two  vices  associated 
by  Solomon  and  in  all  history,  were  truly  regen- 
erated as  well  as  reformed,  and  received  into  the 
Church  of  Christ.  As  Herod  and  Felix,  to  whom 
John  and  Paul  spoke,  had  confidence  in  men 
who  were  abstainers  from  intoxicating  bever- 
ages and  who  urged  "  temperance  "  on  all,  so  now, 
statesmen,  sceptics  too,  have  faith  in  men  that 
seek  to  save  all  classes,  high  and  low,  from  the  lure 
by  which  Noah  fell.  They,  of  all  men,  can  not 
credit  this  :  that  Jesus  Christ,  man's  Divine  Re- 
deemer, made  and  drank  intoxicating  wines ;  and, 
especially,  that  for  the  ordinance  which  perpetu- 
ates the  remembrance  of  His  spotless  life,  and  of 
that  death  whose  agonies  He  would  not  alleviate 
by  an  intoxicating  anesthetic,  He  appointed  the 
use  of  such  wine. 

There  was  a  rainbow  of  promise  which  encir- 
cled the  deluged  earth  when  man's  new  and  as- 
sured age  of  redemption  began.  It  grew  broad- 
er, and  its  hues  lovelier,  amid  the  progress  in 
social,  political,  and  religious  "  truth  and  grace," 
under  the  patriarchs,  Job,  Melchisedek,  and 
Abraham ;  types  of  the  three  races  to  be  redeemed, 
when  unfermented  wine  was  sought  and  invented. 
It  spanned  the  heavens,  and  the  angel  bands 
sung  under  its  arch,  when  Christ  was  born  ;  when 
by  His  rule,  "  the  kingdom  within  "  man  began, 
the  sway  of  whose  social,  national,  and  religious 


598  The  Divine  Law  as  to  Wines. 

"  truth  and  grace  "  is  now  triumphing  in  land 
after  land,  France,  England,  America,  and  is 
binding  into  one  all  nations.  The  fall  of  the 
redeemed  race  the  ancient  sages  of  all  nations 
have  traced  to  that  type,  historic  and  actual ;  to 
the  degradation,  the  shame,  the  crime  witnessed 
in  Noah's  debauch  from  intoxicating  wine.  The 
successful  study  for  an  antidote,  the  bees'  de- 
signed teaching,  the  extracted  and  sealed  saccha- 
rine juice  of  the  grape,  known  to  Egyptians  and 
Hebrews  from  Abraham's  day,  made  and  used 
and  appointed  for  religious  rites  by  the  old  Ro- 
man Republicans,  enjoined  by  Christ  and  main- 
tained by  His  apostles  and  faithful  servants  in 
each  successive  age  of  the  progress  of  His  Church 
— this  vital  domestic,  social,  national,  and  relig- 
ious gift  of  God — He  will  yet  make  His  people 
hail  and  accept  as  His  boon.  They  that  with 
magnanimity,  if  not  from  convictions  of  sci- 
ence and  of  history,  follow  in  the  footsteps  of 
the  English  bishops,  no  longer  putting  the  ser- 
pent's but  the  Lord's  cup  to  the  lips  of  His 
tempted  "  little  ones,"  if  never  appreciated  in 
the  world  of  short-lived  fortune  and  its  fashion, 
in  a  higher  society,  whose  esteem  will  be  truer, 
purer,  and  eternal — such  quiet  Christian  workers 
will  hear  a  voice  saying :  "  Inasmuch  as  ye  did  it 
unto  one  of  the  least  of  these  my  brethren  ye 
did  it  unto  me  " ! 


ALPHABETIC    INDEX. 


Explanatory  Note. — The  necessity  and  best  methods  of  writ- 
ing the  words  of  one  language  in  the  letter  of  another  language 
were  developed  when  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  were  translated  first 
into  Greek,  and  then  into  Latin  and  modern  English  tongues.  The 
rules  for  putting  Semitic  and  Greek  terms  into  Roman  letters  are 
substantially  those  which  suggested  themselves  to  Plautus,  Cicero, 
and  Pliny.  The  three  main  difficulties  are  these  :  First,  the  differ- 
ing pronunciation  of  vowels  in  different  tribes  as  well  as  nations  ; 
second,  the  differing  articulation  of  labials,  dentals.  Unguals,  pala- 
tals, and  Unguals  in  differing  sections  as  well  as  languages  ;  and 
third,  the  absence  of  gutturals,  and  of  compounds  based  on  gut- 
turals in  modem  European  tongues.  Thus  "Muhammed"  is  pro- 
nounced "Mahomet,"  "Mehemet,"  or  "Mohammed";  and  the 
"  Pasha  "  of  the  Turks  is  the  "  Bashaw  "  of  the  Arabs. 

Tlie  special  source  of  confused  orthography  in  records  as  to 
wines  arises  mainly  from  the  varied  methods  of  writing  the  Se- 
mitic gutturals  ;  of  which  there  are  four.  The  first,  "aleph,"  is  a 
slight  breathing,  necessary  in  the  effort  to  pronounce  distinctly 
two  vowels  succeeding  each  other;  as  in  "coeval";  the  Semitic 
"aleph"  being  similar  to  the  Grecian  smooth  breathing.  The 
second,  "he,"  corresponds  to  the  Roman  and  modern  "h";  which 
the  Greeks  indicated  by  their  rough  breathing.  The  third,  "heth," 
and  the  fourth,  "ayin,"  compounded  often  with  labials,  dentals, 
Unguals,  and  palatals,  have  but  partial  representatives  in  European 
tongues.  The  Semitic  "  heth,"  or  "  kheth,"  a  palatal  and  soft  gut- 
tural, is  really  the  Greek  "chi,"  and  the  German  and  English 
"  ch  ";  which  the  French  necessarily  represent  by  "  kh."  The  fourth, 
"ayin,"  or  "ghain,"  a  palatal  and  rough  guttural,  is  illustrated  in 
the  name  of  the  Philistine  city  "Gaza";  written  by  the  Greek 
translators  both  "  Azza"  and  "Gaza"  ;  while  the  Arabs  now  pro- 
nounce it  "Ghuzzch."  This  sound  is  still  preserved  in  the  Celtic 
"gh"  ;  whose  differing  pronunciation  may  be  traced  in  the  Greek 
"lakkos,"  Roman  "lacus,"  Italian  "lago,"  French  "lac,"  English 
Make,"  Scotch  "loch,"  Irish  "lough."    The  difficulties  attending 

(599) 


6oo 


Alphabetic  Index. 


the  representation  of  these  compounds  with  a  guttural  is  seen  in 
these  examples.  The  compound  "sh,"  as  in  "Shibboleth,"  was 
pronounced  "  Sibboleth  "  east  of  Jordan  ;  "  Shemitic  "  is  now  "  Se- 
mitic "  ;  the  hard  "th  "  is  lost  to  modern  French  ;  the  soft  "  th  "  in 
"  the  "  is  impossible  to  Germans  ;  while  "  ch,"  always  hard  in  other 
tongues,  is  soft  as  "sh"  in  French,  so  that  they  write  "cherbet" 
for  the  Arabic  "sherbet." 

In  the  records  brought  together  in  this  volume,  put  into  Roman 
letter  according  to  rules  anciently  observed,  the  following  methods 
have  been  followed:  The  Semitic  "aleph"  is  omitted;  when  ini- 
tial as  in  "  eshishah  "  ;  when  medial,  as  in  "  seor  "  ;  and  when  final, 
as  in  "chamra"  and  "chamro."  The  Semitic  "he"  is  the  Roman 
"h"  ;  common  to  all  European  languages,  except  the  Greek.  The 
Semitic  "heth,"  as  in  "chemer,"  and  its  cognates,  written  neces- 
sarily by  the  French  as  "  kh,"  and  by  some  English  scholars  either 
"h"  or  "kh,"  is  made  "ch."  The  fourth  Semitic  guttural,  when 
initial,  is  indicated  by  a  comma  ;  as  in  'anab,  'asis,  and  'etsir.  In 
transferring  Greek  to  Roman  letter,  according  to  early  Roman 
usage,  the  following  methods  are  followed:  The  long"e"  and 
"o"  are  indicated  by  the  usual  horizontal  accent ;  "upsilon"  is 
made  "y,"  as  in  "chyle"  and  "chyme"  ;  the  rough  breathing  is 
supplied  by  "h,"  as  in  "hepsema";  the  guttural  breathing  in 
"phi,"  "chi,"  and  "theta"  is  supplied  also  by  "h,"  as  in 
"amethuson";  and  the  Roman  "c"  is  used  for  "k,"  as  in 
"acetum"  and  "omphacium." 

These  rules  of  writing  Greek  in  Roman  letter,  sanctioned  by 
classic  Latin  authors,  are  illustrated,  as  well  as  confirmed,  by  the 
modern  method,  now  common,  of  writing  German  in  English,  or 
old  Roman,  letter. 


Aaron 179 

Ahraham 46  ;  408,  9,  23 

Abstinence,  24;  n8,  20,  37,  44,  57.  89; 
284  ;  300,  4,  5,  41  ;  436,  7.  See  Tem- 
perance. 

Acetum  (Rom.) 383 

Aeigleukos  (Gr.) 142  ;  384 

iEschylus 109,  90 

Agassiz 130  ;  321 

Akoiton  (Gr.) 383 

Al-Bucasis 36 

Albumen 29;  30;  43 

Alcohol  (Arab.) 16,  32  to  8  ;  278-82 

Alexander 26  ;  132,  40  ;  383 

Alford,  Dean 289 

Allen,  Dr.  Charles    345 


Ambrose      216 

American  Temperance ^43  i  3°$ 

"         Legislation 290 

Amethyson  (Gr.) 384 

Ampelos  (Gr.) 158 

'Anab  (Heb.)  _ 63 

Anatomy,  ancient 381 ;  400,  i 

Ancients    11,12 

Androcydes 141 

Anesthetics   no 

Anstie,  Dr 340 

Anthologies 229,30 

Anti-Bacchus 332,  8 

Apocrypha '52-7 

Aquinas 226  ;  388 

A  rabian 220  ;  443,  7 

Arabic  Language,  22,  35.  71,  2  ;  221  ;  423, 
6,  9,  36,  8 


Alphabetic  Index, 


6oi 


Arabic  Version 393,  4 ;  400 

Arak(Per.)..     258 

Aramasan 409,25 

Arian   199;  411 

Aristaeus 404 

Aristophanes 109 

Aristotle,  106,  31-9,  92  ;  315,  26;  321,  56; 
400,  I,  3 

Armenian 423 

Arp  (Egyp.) 426 

Artists 16  ;  267,  8 

Ascetics    ...  .   210,  t6,  '26 

Asclepiades  145 

'Asis  (Heb.) 86,  94  ;  414,  15,  38,  51 

Asotia  (Gr.)  175;  452,4 

Assyrians  ....    95 

Athanasius 209 

Athenaeus  33i  s6,  85  ;  111,91 

Athenian 116 

Augustine 316,  25 


B. 

Bacchus ii5i  r9i  93 ;  332 

Baird,  Rev.  R. 332 

Bartenora 186 

Basil axi,  31 

Beer 32 

Beni-Hassan 56,  63 ;  313 ;  440 

Bersalabi 325 

Berzelius 338,  48-51 

Bibliotheca  Sacra  ....  247-51,  7 ;  332,  40 

Bingham 325,  31 

Binz,  Dr 340 

Blood,  of  gfrapes 49,  54,  63  ;  450 

Bohlen,  von  .    21 

Boiled,  27,  66 ;  247,  50 ;  386, 95  ;  43s,  6,  8 

Botrus  (Gr.) 158 

Bottles 1675211 

BoullirCFr.) 364,Bs;4o8 

Brahmins 57~9f  6z,  95 

Brazo  (Gr.) 407,8 

Briggs,  Hon.  G.  W. 390 

Bright,  Hon.  J.     389 

Brougham,  Lord 388 

Bumstead,  H. 340 

Bunsen .   410,  41 

Burns,  Dr 254;  335 

Bush,  Prof.  G 353;  328;  438 

Byroa 23  ;  366 


O. 

Call,  present iS 

Carpenter,  Dr 382;  351 

Carthage «3» 

"         Language 4«'9 

Castell 76;  «79;  3»Si  »7 

Catholic 3" 

Cato 6;  X33;  337,70 

Chaleb(Heb.)    73 

Chaldeans 49,  5" !  3^7 ;  4»o 

Chaldee  Language 4o8~'5 

Ckalmers,  Rev.  J »54 

Champagne 43  i  3S6i  f 


ChampolHon    -.••..•  57  ;  '99 :  34" ;  44« 

Cnamra  (Chald.) xoo;  1*1,  3;  4*5 

Chamro  <^yr.) v^ 

Chardin,  Sir  J 443 

Charlemagnr ............a.  an 

Chemeh  (Heb) 73 

Chemer  (Heb),  65;  257;  314;  4x4,  33, 6, 30 

Chemical  Law 3i~5  <  344 

Chemists a74,5,6;446 

Chomets  (Heb.) 67 

Christ  and  Wine 165-73 

Chrysostom 316 

Church  Reform  17  ;  300-6 

"       Temperance  Society 33! 

Chyle  (Gr.) 404>  5.  at 

Chyme  (Gr.) 404 

Cicero 46;  X)4 

Cider 417 

Clement 69 ;  X99 ;  338 ;  454 

Cocceius X5<;339;3<* 

Coffee  Shops 339;  4$5 

Coles,  Dr "Ix 

Colon, Prof. 34 

Columella   139 ;  337,  8,  9,  75 

Comptes  Rendus 34i 

Confucius xoo 

Constantine 189,96;  90s 

Co-operation MS.  4 

Coptic 4*« 

Criticism 444^5 

Cruikshank 367 

Cuit(Fr.) 66 

Cyprian 305,  3* 

Cyril sii;4S3.4 

Cyrus 97i  8,  9 


s 


D. 

Danisi. •• 

David 

Decline V* 

Defrutum  (Rom.) 43* 

Delavan • 437 

Democritus    »»3<  4* 

Demosthenes «90 

De  Revna 236 

Deutena(Gr.) • X4« 

Dibs  (Arab.),  Debsh  (Heb.),  43,  65 ;  109 ; 
»S*:  435 

Differing  Views ao 

DioCassius 19S 

Diodorus 69 ;  109 

Dioscorides 37!»37;4oi,  4 

Distilled 39;a9>,8 

Dodge,  Hon.  W.  E 390 

Dot^ «« 

Drinking  Habits 40:  44* 

The  term 138,  3«4 

Duff.  Dr 27 ;  355,  89 ;  417,  3» 

Du  Perron •"• 

Duprrf 44»-S 

Duty  10,11 


Ebrio  (Lat.) . . 
Ecclesiastic  us 


•  !5 


602 


A  Iphabetic  Index. 


Education...... 127 

Effervescence,  372,  83,  9.     See  Ferment. 

Egypt,  22,  47,  53,  7,  62,  3,  84 ;  192  ;  209  ; 

312,  13 ;  410,  40 

Egyptian  Language 411,  26 

Encratites \i.. 202 

Encyclopedists    ........'....  276-8 

English  Reform • 353  ;  303 

*'       Laws 286-9 

"       Versions 238  ;  359 

Epiphanius 210 

Eschol 62 

Esdras  .   ..   153 

Eshishah  (Heb.) 86,94 

Ethiopian  Language    41'^,  23 

'Etsir  (Arab.) 223  ;  420 

Euripides 374 

Eusebius 204,  6  ;  454 

Excess  ..., 175 

Experience,  7,  8,  9 ;  272,  3 ;  319,  20 ;  440 


Faith 318,  20 

Falernian 309 1  39 

Farrar,  Canon 303-5 

Fashion 9  ;  270-3  ;  389 

Ferment,  31,  5,  9-52,  62,  4,  7,  9,  72,  5,  6; 

274-8 

Arrest,  4t,  2  ;  347,  50,  7,  90,  i ; 

430 

Filter    ....   ...  349,  50,  66,  9,  80,  93,  7,  8 

Foaming  Wines . 313,  14,56 

Formulated aSS,  6  ;  434,  8 

Fowler,  Dr 335,  8 

French  Laws ; ; 203,  85,  6,  99 

"        Terms..     '. 361,9 

"       Versions...   237 ;  451 

Frey  tag    .    . .     22  ;  222  ;  429 

Fruit  of  Vine 159 

Fuerst  ,, 6,  72-5;  417,  23 


Gale,  Dr 343 

Galen  ._ ........'......;»;139;  404 

Gasparin,  Count 343 

Gauls i....i......   134 

Gay,  Lussac 348,  51 

Geike 453 

Gephen  (Heb.) 6a 

German  Laws 285 

"        Terms 24^:359 

"        Versions 138;  235 

Gesenius 72,  5  ;  423 

Gill,  Dr 34a 

Gini  (Armen.) 423 

Gleukos  (Gr.),  25,  48,  50 ;  134,  48,  59,  73, 

^.  .  90 ;  235-9 ;  339, 41 ;  400, 3-7 

Glory  Divine 456 

Gleuxis  (Mod.  Gr.) 407 

Glukus  (Gr.),  112,  21,  2 ;  341 ;  405,  47,  53 

Graham,  Mr 328 

Grape-j  nice  Elements 29 

Gratitude 456 


Grecian  Church 029 ;  388 

"        Laws 105,  6,  94 

"       Physicians,  110,  11,  28,  9,  37,  9; 

"       Versiott 147 

Greek,  modern 187 ;  407 

Greenfield,  Dr 282 

Gypsum 390 


H. 

Hackett,  Prof.  342 

Hammond,  Dr 340 

Hamra.    See  Khamra. 

Hanno 410 

Hebron 49,  62 

Hebrew  Language 62  ;  408-13 

Hecatasus  55 

Helmholtz 34  ;  3;i 

Hengstenberg 21,  53 

Henry,  Prof. . .     322,  3,  43 

Hepsema    407 

Herodotus,  21,  53,  4,  5,  69;  108,  39  ;  317, 
40;  40X 

Hieratic 57 

Hippocrates...  25,  8,  38,  9;  no,  11 ;  403 

History 10,  18,  19 

Homer 12,  16  ;  106.  7  ;  261 

Homes,  Rev 8,  22  ;  249  ;  438 

Honey 109  ;  380,  2 

"       Drink ..   374,5 

"       Offering 374  ;  427 

Horace 23  ;  135 ;  309,  38,  99 

Hunt,  Dr. ...  281 


India .^ 5a 

Indo-European 40S,  11,  23 

Inebriare  (Lat.) 69;  150 

Inerticula  (Lat.) 337,  84 

Intemperance 125 

Intoxication .,....<.,.. ;i2&,  9 

Iowa    '..j.'t-i^^Mc^tit 

Irensus .■..•^^i.,v-un 

Isaac jff-xi^^ 

Italian  Artists ■.•. . . »:.'- b68 

^'       Laws 300 

"       Terms .j  360 


J. 

JAC130N,  President ;..,.  329 

Jacf  1 .' 62;  409 

Jael    73 

Jahn 186;  343 

Jamblicus      70 

Jameson,  Mrs .  a68 

Jerome,  38,  48,  69,  79 ;  150,  77 ;  213 ;  311, 

3»4,  5  ;  4191  47.  5».  4 

Jewett,  Dr 278 

Jewish  Customs 431-3 

Joachimsen,  Judge 432 

Job .'. 49.  SO)  7» 


Alphabetic  Index, 


60  • 


John  Baptist 163 

Joseph 47,  8,  52,  7,  63,  70 ;  410,  46 

Josephus    46,73:177,8 

Judah f/q 

Judith  ... 152 

Julius,  Pope 828 

fustin 304 

E. 

Kansas 294 

Kentucky 295 

Kerasmatos  (Gr.) . .     66 

Khamr  (Chal.) 430,36 

Khamreh  (Arab.),  33.     See  Chamreh. 

Kohl  (Arab.) 36,7 

Koran 318 ;  437,  43 


I.. 

LACHRYMiG  Christi,  277  ;  307,  8,  9,  40 ; 

4'7 

Larrabee,  Rev.  B 257 

Laurie,  Dr a57;337:«9 

L.avoisier 36 

Law,  Civil.    See  Legislation. 

"     Natural 6,  10,  la 

"     Religious 11-14 

Laxative 6 ;  416,  19 

Lees,  Dr. 98  ;  2S3  ;  335,  7 

Legislation,  American 290-8 

"  European...  283-9,  09  ;  300 

"  Greek 1 13-26 

"  Roman 207 

Leo  XIIL,  Pope 226 

Leopold  . . 77,  9 

Lepsjus 342;  441 

Lesbian 399 

Lewis,  Prof.  T 251 ;  328 ;  438 

Liebig 33,  4  ;  »75  ;  35« 

Lueiary  Genius 360 ;  389 

Lixivium  (Rom.). ...   377,  8 

Longinus 445 

Lora  (Rom.) 142 

Lord's  Supper.    See  Supper. 

Lot.. 45 

Low  Latin , 362 

Lucian  ...    187 

Luke,  Physician 170 

Luther 151 ;  234 ;  431,  48,  51 


Maccabbes X54 

Maine 992 

Magi 410 

Maimonides.  . ._    78  ;  x86 ;  316,  43 

Manning,  Cardinal  17 

Martial,  poet 376 

Massachusetts 292 

Mathew,  Father 33" 

Maurer 4S» 

McCloskey,  Cardinal 17  ;  i7«.  3o» 

Mead 73 ;  4'7 


Meams,  P ....  351 

Medes 9J 

Medical  Writers,  278-83  ;  353-6,  Gr.,  378 

Medicinal  Musts...  180;  357,  70,  1,94-7 

Oil 170 

"  Wines  . .  26,  38,  38 ;  170 ;  357 

Megasthenes 60 

Melchisedec 46 

Meli  (Gr.) 108 

Melititia  (Rom.) 386 ;  404 

Menu 18.  57-60 

Mere-goiitte  (Fr.) 386 ;  417 

Meritho  (Svr.) 73 ;  198 ;  420 

Mesak  (Heo.) 90 ;  105 

Methe  (Gr.> 77,8;  364 

Method,  Historic  ..    365 

"        Philological 358 

Methusko  (Gr.),  133,  37,  49,  51,  62,  99; 

Methusma  (Gr.) 777I 

Meyrowitz  (Dr.) 416,  35,  56 

Michigan 394 

Milton 365 

Ministers 3x1 ;  437,  41 

Miracles. ._ 165:453 

Mission  Fields 240-3 

Missionaries,  26 ;  247-57 ;  327,  38 ;  434-4X 

Moore,  Dr 334-4°  ;  383-98  ;  443 

Moses         51,  2,  64  ;  410 

Muhammed 217:427 

Mulled 4? 

Must...   .   42.7* 

"    Drank 362:439,40 

"    Wine 373''  <•? 

Mustum  (Lat.). ..  25,  50,  76,  7;  148;  316 

Myrrh J41,  ;• 

Mut&  (Fr.)  Wines  . . .  353,  7,  63 ;  402,  it 


Napoleon  Savants 53  ;  34a ;  441 

Nazarites  33,  61,  83  ;  104  ;  904    6 

Nebid  (Arab.) asi 

Nectar  (Gr.) lod,  X07 

New  Jersey 093 

New  Testament X57-77 

New  York 993 

Noah,    45;   179,  84;  ao3,  73;  304,  ao: 
484.  43 

Nott,  President 8:  245 

Numa  ict,43:  38» 

Nutritive 28  ;  395,  6 


O. 

Obsbrvex,  New  York »5a ;  437 

Offerings,  not  of  wine,  56 ;  143 :  317,  Tp, 
4.«7,* 

Official  Dinners 329 

Ohio 994 

Oil 170  ;  309, 13,  »9,  »6.  45.  77,  9« 

Oinos  (Gr.) 25,  54,  79  ;  148,  60;  314 

Old  Wine »6« 

Omphacium  (Gr.) 39a 

Omphalion  (Gr.) 39a 


6o4 


Atphabetic  Index. 


Oriental  Church 429-33 

Origen 45 ;  202 


Pagninus ...     75 

Palestine 8 ;  213,  47,  8 ;  434-7 

Pancoucke 3=3 

Papal  Bull..... 388 

Paradise 219 

Parker,  Dr 340 

Parsons,  kev.  B 338 

Passover,  41, 6, 82 ;  185, 6 ;  248, 58  ;  431-3 

Passum  (Rom.) 134  ;  315,  86 

Pasteur 274  ;  346 

Patton,  Dr 305  ;  439 

Paul ......    .......   174 ;  445 

Perkins,  Dr. 257  ;  439 

Persians  ...  103,  4,  39  ;  220  ;  443 

Pharmakon  (Gr.) 38 

Phericydes 100 

Philo 38,  56,  78  ;  177,  8 

Philosophy n  ;  112-28  ;  443 

Phoenician 409,11,25,6 

Phosphorus 29 

Photius .       432 

Physicians ; .  9,  26 

"  French ...  353 

"        ^''c*'')  ii°i  iii28,  g,  37, 9;  403 

Pitch —   390-3 

Pitman,  Hon.  Mr 298 

Plato    78  ;  113-21,  92  ;  206  ;  356 

Plautus 133  ;  373 

Pliny,  6,  56,  69,  85  ;  140-6,  50 ;  311,  36,  7, 
56,  68,  80-98 

Plutarch      21,  3,  54,  69,  85 

Poetic  Genius 261 

Poison 44 ;  205 

Politicians 139 

Polo,  Marco 443 

Polybius 133 

Poole 239 

Porphyry 56 

Praeter  (Lat.) : .  387 

Prejudgment ; . .       5 

Premises 320,  30-4,  9  ;  445-8 

Preparatory  Studies 341-2 

Presbyterian  Review 334-9 

Press,  Spirit  of 327  ;  444.  5 

Presses,  Wine     309-13 

Princeton  Review,  331-4,  8,  48,  g,  54  ;  435 
Protropos  (Gr.),  112,43;  312,37,84,  6;  417 

Provencal    3S5f  63i  4 

Psammiticus 21,55,85 

Publications  of  Nat.  Tem.  Soc,  281,  91, 

T,     ■     VTT  1  ^  ^  •  30s,  29,  34-8  ;  444 

Punm  (Heb.) ; -2^8 

Punic 416 

Pythagoras 70 ;  101 


B. 

Ra_bbinic_ 186,  7 ;  316 ;  424,  5 

Raisin  Wine 41  ;  250  ;  356 ;  436,  8 

Raveh  (Rab.  Heb.) 181,  9S 


Redding... ;,.•:.-;,•/.•„.•.•:....  339;  442-5 
Reforms  ..;.;.':  ■."'...'   .'.'.-  S»8;  306-6,  18 

Reid,  Rev.  W. ;...-;.... •; 254 

Religion :.....  11-14  ;  142;3';  387,8 

Rhine '. 43 

Rich,  Dr.  A.  B. . . . . ; .  ; : . :    J33,  5  ;  451 
Richardson,  Dr.. ...;;;:;;;  878,  82  ;  340 

Ripley,  George      444 

Robinson,  Dr.  E. 327,  8 ;  434-7,  43 

Romans       ::   41;  101,3 

Romulus 148 

Roscellini ■...■.•..;';;  •  ^ 

Rox(Gr.) :r.  7-4-iP 


S. 


Saccharine. 36^43 

Samaritan 409 

Sanscrit 78  ;  410,  11,  26 

Sapa  (Rom.).. .  66 ;  391,  4,  5  ;  407,  14,  38 

Sardanapalus 96 

Saufen  (Ger.) ; . . .   151 ;  ^3^ 

Sauf-teufel  (Ger.) 235 

Saussure 39 ;  351,  % 

Scotch ;  ■. 489 

Seirach 200 

Selafeh  (Ardb.) ...;.....  M4;  49b 

Seneca    ; ^..  140 

Seor(Heb.)..... 67;  389 

Septuagint 147-52  ;  447 

Sewell,  Dr. 281 

Shakespeare 263,  4 

Shekar  (Heb.)   ..     87;  151;  315;  415,49 

Sherbet  (Arab.)  ...  22,  42  ;  221.  50 ;  386  ; 

426,  30,  6,  8 

Sikera(Gr.) ISg;  i6i 

Sisera 73 

Smith,  Rev.  Eli,  8,  22  ;  3'27,  32,  40 ;  435- 
9i44 

Smith,  Dr.  S 278 

Smoked  390 

Sobe  (Heb.) :  66 ;  414,  15,  38 

Socrates ii4 

Sodom  . . 46 

Solomon :..'..  89,  96,  1 

Sophocles,  Pror. ; 408 

Sour  Wine 4* 

Spanish  Terms '. ■ ....  ^30 

"        Version 938 

Spartans  ■. . 108,14 

Staph ule  (Gi-.) 158,9 

Statesmen 283-300 

Stibium  (Lat.) 36 

Stimini  (Gr.) 36 

.Strabo fy* 

Stuart,  Prof.,  8,  23 ;  245  ;  327, 36 ;  434, 8, 
45-51 

Sug;ar  Elements 31 

Sully...   .1.... , J6 

Sulphur     *9'i4a;  i53>  9°.  M4 

Summary ;......  3I7 

Sun,  no  wine  to     ■....'.....'.       59 

Sunday  Festivity 195 

Supper,  Lord's,  6,  9,  17,  16 ;  176,  t,  5 ; 

23S ;  3<iH,  i8  ;  433,  55 

Sweet  Wine 43 


Alphabetic  Index, 


605 


Syriac. 
Syrup  . 


73  ;  197 ;  409 

65 


T. 

J^«^^ 138;  435, 40 

Talmud 181-6;  435,6 

Targums i^g 

Temperance  Nature,  84;   117,  22,  3,  4; 

Temperance   Society,  34;   315;   328-33, 
_      4a  ;  437i  44i  7i  52-    See  A^stuience. 

Texas aos 

Thayer,  Rev.  W,  T 338 

Theodoret 313,31 

Theophrastus  129 

Thompson,  Sir  H. 2S2 

Thomson,  Dr. ,.,  289 

Thiidichum „.,....  44^-5 

Tiberius 145 

Timothy 176,7 

Tirosh  (Heb.),  25,  47,  51,  65,  70-9,  86; 
»oSi  47i  79i  80,  3  ;  223,  34 ;  313,  17 ; 

Tortivum  (Rom.) 078 

Toy,Dr /. J^ 

Tralliemus  m 

Trinken  (Ger.)    151:449 

Truth 10,  11 

Turks 320 ;  443 

Tyndale 238 


XT. 

Unaixoholic 353 

Unfermented,  6,  39-44,  7,  8,  50,  4,  6,  7, 

63?  70-9-  89:  105,  <),  II,  12, 21,  32,  5,  7, 

9,  42,  60,  5,  6,  71,  3,  6,  9,  82,  7,  97 ; 

201,  12-16,  21-1,  7,  33-43,  6,  50,  3,  3; 

-,  .3°3-^,  30,  3,  4»  •  4«8,  28,  44. 

Uniform  Laws  ...'.... 306 

Unintoxicatinx ^84 ;  40a,  27,  9,  46 

Unpressed 360:418 

UtM  (Egyp.) 436 


Van  Dvkk,  Dr. 
Vam> 


•  957.  8 
337.  7a 


Venenum  (Lat.) -g 

Versions,  Arabic 223-4ao 

!!         English  a38;3S9 

French 337;  451 

Oerman 138,  235 

?'•;?''•  O'T «47-S»:447 

^  Italian 938 

Latin  Vulgate  ...  313 ;  415,  37 

Spanish   93^ 

"         Syriac i97  ;  409 

Vine 63;  158;  aoi 

Vinegar 33;  160 

Vireil. . .  12, 16,  33 ;  307,  8,  63  :  309 ;  417 
Vulgate ai3:  419,37 


W. 

WAn»(Copt.  and  Arab.) 

Waller.ProtE 

Walton T'330 

Wayland.  Dr 351 

Wealthy,  Wines  for aM;  329,89 

Wedding,  Jewish 452,  3 

Wilkinson,  Sir  G.  .   ...   53,4,6,63:441 

Wickliffe    33! 

Wilson,  Rev.  A.  M.... 33;  >59 

Wilson,  Hon.  H 390 

Wine-bibber  161,4 

Wright   Rev.  W »54 :  439 

West  Vuginia 395 


Xenopmon 7*«97<S;3t7 

Xencec 99 


Vayin  (Heb.),  35,  50,  66,  *»-4,  8 ;  179, 

„       .  80 :  314  ;  414.  »5,  »a-4,  47,  Si, 

Youtb  .  .  .8 ;  117,  8,  ao,  6,  7 ;  314,  71,  3 ; 

330189,90 


ZtXfO. 


SUPPLEMENTARY  ALPHABETIC  INDEX. 


Abstinencb. 474,  539 

Agape  (Gr.) 470 

Agassix. .         463,  57«,  579,  589 

Akratos  (Gr.) 487 


Ambrose. 461,  508,  558 

Antiphanes  470 

Anti-Slavery  Society. 586 

Aporrox  (Gr.) x©;,  530 

Arabic  Version 536 

Aristotle.  463,  480,  539,  579,  588,  589,  590 


6o6       Supplementary  Alphabetic  Index. 


Amobius 497,  556 

Artorius 478 

Arvisian  Wine 476 

' Asis  (Heb.) 535 

Asotia  (Gr.) 471 

Athanasius 503,  557 

Augustine. 461,  519,  561 

B. 

Baird,  Dr 

Kancroft,  Historian 462,  590, 

Basil 

Bee 307-8,374,380-2-3,428,478, 

Bengel .- 

Bingham 490, 

Bismarck 

Bitumen '. 581,  582, 

Blackstone ^ 

Bossuet 

Brace,  Rev.  S.  C 

Burke,  Edmund '.....  586, 

Bush.Dr 

C. 

Calhoitm,  Hon.  John  C 594 

Carthage,  decree  at 490,  547 

Challenges 543,  547 

Chamah  and  Cognates  (Heb.) 585 

Charapollion '. 462 

Chemer  (Heb.) S35 

Children  at  Supper. 524 

Chipman 579,  58S 

Chomer  (Heb.) 584 

Christ,  Nature  and  Reign 597,  598 

Ch  urch  and  State 595,  596 

Chymes  (Gr) 479 

Chrysostom 461,  511,  559 

Cicero 588 

Clement 461,  462,  469,  551,  553 

Cobb,  Howell,  Sec.   595 

Compromise,  Missouri 587,595 

Comte,  Poiitivist 576 

Confederacy,  N.  Eng.  and  Southern.  592 

Constitutional  Government 586,  593 

Court-fashion 565 

Criticism,  Unscientific 567 

Curry,  Hon.  J.  L.  M .   595 

Cuvier  ,*. 576 

Cyprian 473,490.556 

Cyril 461,514 


Darwin 576 

Daunon,  French 589 

Davis,  Hon.  Jef. . .  595 

Deacons,  Wine-drinking 489 

DeTocqueville 588 

Dibs  (Arab.) ' 537 

DiflFcnng  Views ,.  502 

Dodge,  Hon.  Henry 595 

DooHttle,  Hon.  J.  R 595 

Douglas,  Hon.  S.  A ^5 

Drinlc,  Meaning  of 546 

Dulcia  (Lat.) 495 


Easter,  OfiFerings 496 

Ebrio  (Lat.) 493 

Edinburgh  University 577 

Epicurus 509 

1-  piphanius 507,  558 

Equality,  Social. 586,  589,  590,  591 

"         Religious.         ...  587,  593,  596 

Erasmus 572 

Eshishah  (Heb.) 472 

Ethiopic  Version. . . ; ; . . .  526 

Eusebius 476,  499,  557 

Evils  of  Wine-drinking. 566 

Evolution  Theories 571 

Examiner,  N.  York 456,  532,  543 


Faith,  Nature  of. 579 

Fancy,  Rule  of. .V'.'.:,  ■..,,.  S79 

Farrar,  Canon ..'..'.  / ir.  IV'^L  585 

Fashion,  Influence  of ,    ,,,.,.   565 

Fathers,  Christian 466,  467 

Ferment,  Arrest  of 581 

Free-Thinkers 586 

Friends,  or  Quakers 552 

Fuerst  (Heb.  Lexicog.) 472 


a. 


Garfield,  Pres...". 595 

Geikie 514 

Genet 591 

German,  Habit 527 

"        Exegesis '.'. .  564 

Gleukeon  (Gr.) 495 

Gleukus  (Gr.) 537 

Glukus  (Gr.) 537 

God's  Word  Sacred 585 

Graham,  Wm.  A.,  Sec 595 

Greeley,  Hon.  Horace 596 

Griesbach 573 

Grotius 568,  569 

Guizot r 586,  589 

Gypsum  ;.' 581,582 


H. 

Haeckell,  Evolutionist 571,  578 

Harris,  Hon.  Ira 595 

Hebrew  Language..   .    533 

Hebrew  Scholars,  Misled .1...  532 

Helmhollz - 577 

Hengstenberg 564 

Hilariiis 506,558 

History,  Basis  of  Silence.  464,  472,  473, 
480,  481 

Historic  Collators 536,  539,  545 

"      Parallels 585 

Hodge,  Dr.  A.  A 467 

Homer 477 

Houston,  Gen.  Sam 596 


Supplementary  Alphabetic  Index.       607 


I. 

Imagination,  Rule  of 57^ 

Inebrio  (Lat).  493,  496, 516,  sai/sij,  544 

Inferia  (Mediev.  Lat.) 498 

Interpretation,  Rules  of 463 

I""*"* 468,473,553 

J. 

jAHNon  Old  Test 5,5 

Jedid  (Arab.) 461,515,548 

•{""•"^        463,474,494,560 

J  ustin  Martyr 468,  473,  553 

Juvencus,  Medieval  History 500 


E. 

KALOS(Gr.) 548 

Kendall,  Hon.  Amos 504 

Kent,  Chancellor 579 


Ij. 

Lactantks  (Mediev.  Lat.) 494,  517 

Lactantius 502,  557 

Lesbian  Wine 53^ 

Lewis,  Dr.  Tayler 562 

Liberal  Club 596 

Liberty,  Civil 586,  589,  590,  591 

I'      Religious 587,593,596 

Logic 579 

Lord's  Supper  Prepared 499 

ML. 

Maimonides 473 

Manes 512,  530,  521 

Manning,  Card.  . .   575 

Marcion 483,  512,  55s,  57a 

McCloskey,  Card 575 

Medical  Profession 567 

Merum  (Lat^ 501,  506 

Methusina(Gr.) 538 

Meyrowitz,  Dr 534 

Missouri  Compromise 587,  596 

Montesquieu 579,  581,  589 

Moore,  Dr.  D 461,  467,  543 

Mustum  (Lat.) 462,  541 

"        at  Lord's  Supper 494,  496 


Nazaritbs ■ .  ...  463 

Nectar  (Gr.) 476-8,  486,  538 

Nepho  (Gr.) 505 

New  England  Confederacy 593 

New  Wine 520 

Nott,  Dr 551,  562 

Numa,  Laws  as  to  Wine 530 


O. 

Ofkp.rings,  Pure ^7^   «ai 

Oiled  Skins 4^6;  ioi 

Opinion  in  Science 579 

0"8« • 483,555 

P. 

Palky,  Bish 500 

Pantheism i*. 

Pascal 

Pasteur(French)  ..■.■.:.  .■.■.•;  '.;.■  ■^,  ^JJ 

Patton.Dr cfa 

Paul *6a 

£?'" 46a 

S^'° 471.480 

Plautus 541 

Poole.  Synopsis 52a,  526,  568,  570 

Pope  Innocent  III 491 

Positive  Philosophy 576 

Presbyterian  Church 458 

Presbyters  (Lat.) 489 

Purcell,  Archbish 575 

Pythagoras 471 

Q- 

Quaker,  View  of  Supper 55a 


Religion,  Nat.  and  Revealed 580 

Religious  Liberty 587,  593 

Equality 587.593 

Renan,  on  Science 578 

Result,  Attained.  5^ 

Revolutions,  Eng.,  Fr.,  Amer..  580,  585 

Right  of. 591 

"Riddled,'   Samson    540 

Romulus 48t 

8. 

Samson.  "  Riddled  " 540,  541 

Sanscrit  in  Hebrew. .   533 

Science  based  on  History.  464,  572,  573, 
579.  580.  581 

Secession...      ._ 591.59a 

Sermons  on  Wines 528 

Servitude 586,590,593 

Simon,  Richard .  ..  573,574 

Skins,  Oiled 485,486,  501 

Sobe  (Heb.) si< 

Sorek,  Vine  of. 484,  518 

Specialists 536,  539,  545 

Special  Pleading 506 

Spinoza 574 

Stoic  Maxim     568 

Stuart,  Views  ot. . .  458,  513,  551,  56a,  563 

"       Opposers  of 460 

Suffrage,  Right  of 500 

Sulphur ^fi, 589,584 


6o8      Supplementary  Alphabetic  Index. 


Sumner,  Hon.  Chas .   5951  -y^ 

Supper,  Lord's. . . .  472-4,  499-2,  518,  523 

Sytiac  V'ersion 526    Valentinus ....  512,  573 

Virchow 577.578 

Virgil 476,  477i  47^ 


Temperance  Advocates. . .  528,  561,  597 

"  Societies 587 

"  National 489 

TertuUian 480,554 

Text,  Historic  New  Test 563,  573 

Theodoret. 529 

Tirosh  tHeb.) 536 

Tischendorff,  New  Test.  Text 573 

T6b(Heb.) 548 

Todd,  Dr.  John 573 

Tradition,  Doctrinal 464 

"         Historic. 464,465 

Trent,  Council  of 573,  577 


•w. 

Washington  City  Life 587 

Wayland,  Dr.  F 588,  59° 

Webster,  Hon.  D  587.  5<34 

Whewell 579.  588 

Williams,  Roger  586,  587 

Wine,  Two  Kinds 485 

Wine-drinkiiig  Poets 563 

Writer's  Experience 7.  8,  9.  342,  458, 

58s 


Xenophanes 57^ 

Xera(Grk.) 475 

Ximenes,  Card 57' 


Unfermented  Wine 460,  ezi  I  2. 

Unintoxicatiiig      "     461 

Unscientific  Criticism 570  j  Zeno,  Christian  Father 494,556 


TEXTUAL     INDEX. 


OLD    TESTAMENT. 


^Scn.9;30-35 45.68,  ?o;  184;  aoa  ; 

316.  20 :  .415,  49 

"     ":3i    •• 49 

13:4-35    50 

"     13:18 47 

"    U.xS 46 

!;  »*==♦ •••  « 

:;  niS:::::::::::::::::::::::,^ 

'      19:33 45 

'     ao:i5     50 

.34:6-18    so 

"    35:30 409 

"    37  :  s8,  37 47,  73 ;  334,  6 ;  320 ; 

417,  31 
3^=47 ••  409 

40:9-11.... .........03,3;  314 

"    41:3s 171 

41:45 53 

:    43:23 -..■  410 

.     43:". 48,64 

"    43:34.5 48;  3*6,  ao  ;  415 

'    45:6 413 

,,    47:34 171 

„"    49:" 6«<8i;4So 

fExod.  3:8 , 65 

"     7:11,33 166 

"     8:7,18,19 166 

"     8:31,3,31 x66 

"     .33 :  10 171 

"     »4:34 7» 

39:40 81 

,    "      34:31 413 

rLev.  10 : 3 306 

"    10:9 68,9,84 

"    10:19 415 

nth  chap 313 

"     32 : 3 84 

"    23:13 81 

.Numb.  6 :  1-21 83 

"      6:2-12 84:316 

"       6:3.^ 68,  9;  180;  206,  II 

"     .8:x2. 76 

"       14:34 76 

„       15:5 450 

"       »S:S-»o ..     81 

"       18:2 183 

"       18:12 317;  450 

"       18:33 334 

"       18:27 310 

"       21:14,37 : 52 

*       28:14 8i;450 


I>eut.4;.8 0,5*^6l 

7:i3......... 75,9 

8-8-- - 63 

„       14:36 69 

„      »7:»4 17,86 

„      "•*■ 413 

31:18-31 183 

"      21:20 67:415 

.33:9    171 

'      .33:34 63 

„       36:5 4og 

"      28:39,51 183:450 

39 :  19 181 

"      32:7.  «4 64.66,73:414 

33:33,3 .46:3x5,33 

33:42 68 

/'      33:28 183 

Joshua  15:25 180 

Judges4:i9 74 

.!      5:25 73.4 

6:  II 311 

"      9:^3 •  197:334.6,8 

"      '3:4.7 68,9,83 

"      14:8 6s 

16:17 83 

Ruth  2:14 •••.•* 68 

X  Sam.  1:15 (69,83;  4*5 

"      8:5,13,14 86 

"      8:12 413 

"      14:35-9 65 

"       17:17,18    88 

"      25 :  18,  37 88 

a  Sam.  3:3 89 

"      6:19 94 

12:30 310 

"      13:27,8 V> 

"  il:^2 ::::;::::::::::.:.;::  U 

"      '7  =  «9 74 

1  Kings  4 :  25 63 

"       17:' *63 

21:15 75 

3  Kings  1:8 t63 

'*       18 :  36 409 

"       18:31 63 

"       18:33 106:197 

xChron.9:39 81,88 

"        12:40 88 

"        16:3 94 

3  Chron.  3  :  15 oi 

"        9o:xi 76 

"       31:5 w« 

(609) 


6io 


Textual  Index. 


2  Chron.  32 :  28 106 

Ezra  6:4 180 

"     6:9 66 

"     7  :  2a 66 

Neh.  2:1 103 

"     5:11 106 

"     5:15....    ..i. .....-- 81;  103 

"     5:18,19 ioS;336 

"     8 :  10 82  ;  103,  70,  86 

"     10 :  37,  9 79  ;  106 ;  236,  8,  9 

"      13  :  5,  12   106  ;  236,  9 

"      13  :  5,  12,  15. .  80,  I ;  103  ;  311 ;  450 

Esther  i :  7,  8,  10 104 

"       2:3.9,12 ..».,■!.;{.;...   180 

"       5:9,14 105 

^    "       7:7, T 104 

Job  1:4-18 .' 49 

"     16:16 6s 

"     20:15 •• 72 

"     20:17 74 

29:6 73 

"     32 :  19 418,  20,  I 

"     42 :  i6 ^ . . . .       49 

Psalms  4:7 86 

"      23:5 151 

32 : 7 2" 

"      46:3 6S 

"      60:3 89 

"      6s  :  10 151 

"      69 :  12 87 

"      69 :  21 68 

;*      7S:8 65,89;  41S 

"      78:65 89 

"      104 :  15 105  ;  212 

"      115-118 188 

"      120-137 188 

"      119:103 315 

Prov.  3:6 187 

"     3 :  10,  II 86 ;  180,  99 ;  239 

::  4:17 89 

5:3 451 

155 

• 155 


"     5 :  '8 
"     6:29  ., 
"     8:18  .. 

::  9:2,5 

"  0:3,5 

10:26. 


180 
90 
452 

68 

"      »5:i3 • loS 

**      17:5,22 105 

20 : 1 7,  25,  68,  87,  9 ;  200 ;  450 

"      20:30 180 

"      23  :  20,  I 67  ;  161 

"      23 :  20-31 90,  4 

"      23:29-35 335 

23:31 7,  25,  84;  211;  450 

■'      25:20 68 

"      25:27 78:187 

"      3o:.33 74 

'       31:3 9i  25 

*      31:4,6 84,7;  450 

*'      31:6 68 

Eccles.  2:3 Qi 

n      9:9 155 

10 :  19 91 

"       11:9 91 

Song  of  Sol.  1:3,  4....... 89 

."          1:6 87 


Song  of  Sol.  2:5 94 

"  4 :  10 89 

S:i 89 

5:7 87 

7:9 89 

,    .     '  8:2 89,94;  197;  420 

Isah.  1:22." 67 

"     5:",«3 87,91 

5:22 ,  68 

"     7:1s 73,4 

„     7:22 73,4 

16 :  10 81 ;  310 ;  450 

"     22 :  13  92 

"     24:7.'  -i-. J..  79;  197;  334,6,8,9 

■       24:9 87 

24:9,11 93 

"     27:2-6; ^66;  414 

"     28:1,7 68,88,92 

'^     29:9 '..  88,  93 

"     30:24 » 413 

49 :  26 88,  94 ;  197 ;  420,  i 

"     51 :  21 88,  92 

"     55:1 81;  423 

56 :  12 67,  88,  92 

"     58:11 1511  2 

"     63:1 67 

62:2,3 311 

"     65 : 8  . .  72,  4,  6,  9 ;  107,  97 ;  234,  6, 
^,  8,  9 ;  417 

69:26.: 420 

Jer.  3:21 214 

"    23:9 103 

"    31:12 .183 

"    35:2-14 104 

"    .35:6 83 

..     40:" 450 

"    46:10 181 

"    48:26 ......  315 

"    48:33----    • 450 

51:7 68;  103 

Lam.  1:15 31X 

"     1:20..... 65 

"     2:11 65  ;  450 

"     3:1s 181 

„    ,   4:7 83;  104 

Ezek.  44 :  21 84  ;  103 

Dan.  1:5 , 84 

"      1:5,8,16 81 

"      1:5-16., 83;  104 

"      2:4.; 409 

"     5 : 2,  4,  23 (A 

"     6:3,4,23 96 

"      10:3 81 

Hos.  2:5 75 

"    2:9 213 

"    3:1 94 

4:11....  72,  7,  8,  92  ;  148,  50,  I,  80, 
97,  8  ;  23s,  6,  8,  9;  339,  64  ;  418 

"     4:18 67 

"     7:4 67 

"    7:5 92 

9  : 1-4 83 

''    9:3 239 

"    9:4 92 

9 :  IO-I3 84 

"     10:1 171 

Joel  1:5...: 93,  4;  431,  51 


Textual  Index. 


6ii 


Joel  i:to i... 336,9;  42T 

."    «:'* 3'o 

..    3-3 9a 

"    3:13 310.  II 

3:18.  ....................  94;  421 

Amos  2:8... ; . . . :   ....     93 

."     «  =  " 83 

a:i2 93 

"     4:5.....;.: 67 

9:13 ;;.-." 94;  421 

„    ^  =  M  •  • .;.....,....;  ...  93 

T       .  9  =  '5 ..................  ;ii3 

Jonah3:s-9 .•..;;...;..• 96 

'      4:3 96 


Micah2:ii 88,9] 

"      6:  IS  ...  7a,  9,  93  ;  236,  9:  418,  19 

Nahum  1 :  10 67,99 

Hab.a^s.iS- •    ...      93 

Hag.  1:6 ......'.<....     ti 

''     i:iO;. .>.<<< .1 «3o 

"     i:iz......'..«...^.s'.«..  .   (os;  tp 

"     2:17  .......  ...v..r..«....  316,  II 

Zech.  7:3. ;,.  , ,.    84 

"      9:1s » ...•   103,5 

9:17 ^ ...79;  105;  036,  9 

14:10 '. 310 

Malachi4:5 163 


APOCRYPHAL     BOOKS 


1  Ksdras  3 :  18-24 153 

Judith  12: 1-13,  8 152 

Kccles.  9 : 9,  10 155 

I!       »S  =  3    •• »5S 

19:" «55 


E^Ies.  31 :  23-31 900 

"       3i:a5-3»  X55.  * 

*        39:25-37 156 

'        50:14,15 i 156 

aMacc.  15:39 154 


NEW     TESTAMENT. 


Matt.  3:4 .i 163 

'*     0:17 ...  319 

"     7:16 158 

"     9:17....  161,  7;  an,  13,  33,  s;  453 

II :  18,  19 161,  4 ;  30I ;  453 

"     8o:i-8 158 

"     91:38-41 158 

"     31:33 3" 

"     24:29 149 

"     34:49 10a 

.  "     96:a6 IS9 

"      36:27-9 171 

"  26 :  29  . .  158  ;  ;oo,  3,  5,  14,  16,  17, 
a7i  3*.  3i  5.  6 ;  433.  54 

'7:34.5    i8;i6o,i,72 

"     37:48 x6o,73 

Mark  i ;  6    163 

"     a: 33 161,  7;  an,  93;  453 

"     6:13 319 

'*      19:1 31X 

"      12  :  1-9 158 

"  14 :  25  . . .  159,  71 ;  200,  3,  5, 14,  16, 
»7.  »7.  3x.  3.  5.  6 ;  433.  54 

"      15:33 160,1,7a 

"      15  :  36 '6o»  73 

Luke  1 :  15,  17 69 ;  160,  1,  3 

"     1:39,80 163 


37,8....  x6Xv7;  3ZI,  33,  s;  453 

39 155,68 

44 •• «58 

...  161,4;  aoi;  453 

'64 

161 

:  34 161,  9 ;  ai6 

:  ii8 i7» 

:45    >49.5i,6a 

:6-9 158 


S't.  4 
37  •• 
39... 


w. 


Luke  15:13 175 

"     30 : 9-16 158 

"     ":34 ■•••  163;  335 

33  :  18. .  Z59,  71,  98 ;  300,  14, 16,  17, 

«4«7.3X.3.  5.6;  433.  54 

aa:ao 171 

John  a  :3-tz 161.5 

"     3:9 aia 

"     3:10,19...  149,  51,  69;  333,4,39; 
433.  55 

"     4:46 161 

"     4:46,54 165 

15:1-5 158;  90I 

"     15  :  3-6 

1:     X9:»9 

19:29,30 173 

Acts  9: 13 151 

"    3 :  13 159,  73,  98 ;  313,  24,  35,  6, 

7.  8,  9 ;  339.  4>,  59 

*      9:15 149,69 

"    7:39 83:410 

"    15:90 169 

"     17:28 960 

Rom.  12  :  16-18 ....909 

"      13:  «3 x69 

"     14,2,3,31 169 

"     14 : 1-23 174 ;  904,  9 

"     14:" ...  174;  351 

>5:a4 »o3 

5:11 169 

6: 10        i6a 

8:4-13 •  •*9»74 

9:7 »S» 

9:34-97 175 

9;»S  • 

10:31 17s 

10:14-33 174 


I  Cor, 


^J^ 


Textual  Index. 


^.Cor.  lo :  2.8. . ... . .  ..-•••••• .....  175 

"      xi:*i .M9i-S^i42.7S;  »oii 

38:364 

11:25 171 

I  and  2  Cor ....,......;....  see 

Gal.  5  :  i6-2t 214 

Eph.  5  :  18 J49,  .51,  62,  75 ;  214, 15 ; 

335  ;  4521  4i  5 
s;n... ............. .......... —  162 

Col.4:i4 t>,«. X70 

I  Thes.  5:7 ,, 149,  62 

,x  Tim.  3:3 311 

**      »:• •.?j6;33S 


f.  Tim.  5 :33 176 ;  907,  ^3, 14^,16  ; 

r^.  ,  3'^i454 

Titus  1:6 ..^.  J75 

"  '    1 :  13 ........';.  aoo 

"     3:3.......... a7« 

Heb.  7  :  t-17 46 

James  3  :  12 158 

"      5:14 3»9 

I  Peter 4:4 X75 

Rev.  14: 18 158 

"    14:19,20 X58;  311 

"    17:846. ............ ..I...  X49ite 


SUPPLEMEINTARY  TEXTUAL  INDEX. 


.  T  Vi  3  M 

OLD   TESTAMENT. 


Gen.  1 :  26  .... . .569 

2:7 '...,.,,..... 569 

9:20 489vSP8.  S°9i  SSI 

14  :  18 490,  495,  500,  5  JO 

19  :  32,  33 ■  •  •  508,  535 

27  :  a8,  37 . .  495,  509,  527 

49 :  II,  12. . .  468,  482,  484,  492,  506, 

^      ,  ,  521.530.534 

Exod.  32  :  6,  19 508 

Lev.  10:9-11 47^,  519,  530 

Numb.  6:  3 ...   535 

"      13:23,  24 521 

"      25:2 ...531 

Deut.  17:  14,  17     ••.....  536 

"      32:5.  I4i33 531 

32  :  32 483.  530,  534 

Judges  13  :  7, 14. ...     519,540 

"      i4:'4 537,540.542 

"       14:12,18 540 

"       16:30 541 

1  Sam.  8:5 536 

2  Sam.  6  :  19 471 

I  Kings  18:13 509 

Job  I :  i8 569 

"    8:^ 569 

airii 569 

"    3»:8 r 569 

32  :  19 •  •  •  • 537 

38  :  7 569 

Psalm    23:5 484,493,508-10,516 

523-6 

36:8 516.525 

"       73:» ■ 53' 


Psalm   75:8 485.487 

;;       78:47  ....':..  484 

79:8 530 

'        104:15 515.526,536 

116:13 485,526 

„    "       "9:"3 495 

Prov.  9:5 484 

23:29,30 508 

„",    =3:31 .........559 

Eccles.  7  :  29. : ,509 

Song  of  SpL  5  :.i .  - 484 

Isa.  1:18 53£ 

"  y-^- -484x530 

"    49:26 ...   535 

"    5i:»7 • ,S«»7 

"    5S:» 494,507,517 

'     63:1 .483 

"    63:3 52? 

Jer.  1:7-10 483 

2:21 484,485,530 

13:12 483-488 

"  .13:14 .488 

'     25:15 484,485 

33:22 488 

"    35:1-19 .488 

Lam.  1:15 523 

Dan.  1 :  8,  13 509 

Hos.  2:9 517 

*'    4:" 536,538,544 

/     9:" .   ..  519 

Amos  3  :  II,  12 518 

„"    9:14.1s 5«8 

Hab.  2:5 518 


Supplementary  Textual  Index.         613 


NEW   TESTAMENT. 


Matt.  3:3 531 

"     7:17,18   548 

9:»7 500 

"      11:19 481 

"      13:8-48 549 

15:^-6. 464 

'      a6:  17 498,  499 

a6 :  29.  490,  491, 494, 495, 498,  501, 
5<».  5051  5iOi  512,  513.  514, 
518,  523,  533,  537,  538, 529, 

Luke  X  :  15, 17 509 

'*    5:37,38 500 

21:36 508 

John  3:9  ...  514 

"    2  :  10 479,  493,  548,  549,  560 

'    15:1-   490.  S'3 

.        '9:34 ■    ••••  530 

Acts  2 :  13 495,  496,  540,  560 

"   10:34 463 

II :  18  463 

^"     12:  17 463 

Rom.  7  :  23 569 

"      14 :  1-3 533 

"      14:21 519 

14:21,33 471 

z  Cor.  ;  :  10 5^ 

"    6:10,13 569 

"    9:2s 5^ 

"    10:7,16,31 569 

"    10:11 489 

"    10:21 531 

"     II  :3 405 

"     11:17-23 470 

"     11:22,39,30. 57° 

"     11:33-26 493,512 

'*     13:  13 595 


X  Cor.  15:33 47i«5tt<S^ 

''     15:47 569 

3  Cor.  5  :  13,  13 533 

Gal.  1 :  6-9 493 

"    1:  14 464 

^  ,  3:37 530 

Eph.s:i8 507.509 

"    5:31,33 589 

"    5:27    531 

Phil.  3  :  13, 13 463 

"\    3  :«9 48« 

Col.2:8 464 

"    2:21 567-570 

"    2:8-33  ...   568,569 

3:1.  10.. 570 

4:1 590 

I  Thess.  5:8 505 

3  I'hess.  3  :  15 465 

1  Tim.  3:5 559 

'     3:2,11 505,530,531 

_.         5:33 473,509.530 

Titus  2:2 J05,  530 

Heb.  4  :  12 516 

"    7:26 513 

"     12:13,16 531 

"     '3:9 53' 

X  Peter  i :  10, 1 1 489 

"      5:1-     463 

2  Peter  2:15.., 531 

I  John  1 :  7 510 

"      3:15,17 569 

'     4:3    5«3 

5:0 510 

Rev.  1 :  5 510 

"    5:9 5«o 

"    7:14 5K> 

'    i9:»o 5«S 


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